Samskara (Sanskrit: संस्कार, IAST: , sometimes spelled samskara) are diverse rites of passage in Hinduism, Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism.David Knipe (2015), Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition, Oxford University Press, , page 52KE Nayar (2004), The Sikh Diaspora in Vancouver, University of Toronto Press, , page 88Dagmar Benner (2008), in Mathematics and Medicine in Sanskrit (Editor: Dominik Wujastyk), Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 122-123 The word literally means "putting together, making perfect, getting ready, to prepare", or "a sacred or sanctifying ceremony" in ancient Sanskrit and Pali texts of India.
In Hinduism, the samskaras vary in number and details according to regional traditions. They range from the list of 40 samskaras in the Gautama Dharmasutra from about the middle of the 1st millennium BCE, to 16 samskaras in the Grhyasutra texts from centuries later.Carl Olson (2007), The Many Colors of Hinduism: A Thematic-historical Introduction, Rutgers University Press, , pages 93-94 The list of samskaras in Hinduism includes both external rituals such as those marking a baby's birth and a baby's name giving ceremony, as well as inner rites of resolutions and ethics, such as compassion towards all living beings and a positive attitude.
Samskara in Indian philosophy or saṅkhāra (Buddhism) is also a concept in the karma theory of Indian philosophies, referring to dispositions, characters or behavioural traits that exist as defaults from birth or are developed by a person over one's lifetime, that exist as imprints on the subconscious according to various schools of Hindu philosophy such as the Yoga school. These perfected or default imprints of karma within a person, influence that person's nature, responses and states of mind.Stephen H. Phillips (2009), Yoga, Karma, and Rebirth: A Brief History and Philosophy, Columbia University Press, , Chapter 3
Etymology and meaning Saṃskāra (Sanskrit: संस्कार) has various context-driven meanings, that broadly refer to "the putting together, accomplishing well, making perfect, a form of solemn recognition and getting ready, engaging in works and acknowledging the purification of the body by cleansing or the mind by education or an object by a process (such as polishing a gem or refining a metal)".saMskAra Monier-Williams' Sanskrit-English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany The term appears in the Śrutis, and in the Smritis of diverse schools of Hinduism as well as in the texts of Jainism, Buddhism and Sikhism. The etymological roots of the word samskara when it refers to rites of passage, also mean "preparation, purifying, perfecting" from one's past state to one's future state.
The word samskara is rare in the oldest layer of Vedic literature, but its roots sam and kr occur often enough. The word appears in the Rig Veda hymns 6.28.4 and 8.33.9, as well as in other Vedic texts, where the context suggests it simply means "purify, prepare". It appears in the Jaimini Purvamimamsa-sutra (500-200 BCE) many times, where it again means "prepare, perfect, polish" something, either through action, speech or mind.Rajbali Pandey (2013), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 15-16 In sections 3.8.3, 9.3.25 and 10.2.49 of the Jaimini Purvamimamsa-sutra, the word samskara is used to describe actions such as "washing the teeth, shaving the head, cutting nails, sprinkling water" as part of a ceremony.PV Kane, Samskara, Chapter VI, History of Dharmasastras, Vol II, Part I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pages 190-191 Samskara is defined by the ancient Indian scholar Shabara as, "that which prepares a certain thing or person fit for a certain purpose". Another ancient text Viramitrodaya defines samskara, notes Kane, as "a peculiar excellence due to the performance of certain actions which resides in the soul or the body of the actor".
Samskara in Hindu traditions, states Kane, refers to ceremonies, expressing outward symbols or signs of inner change and marking life events of significance. They served a spiritual, cultural and psychological purpose, welcoming an individual into a stage of life, conferring privileges on the individual(s), expecting duties from the individual, and impressing on the individual as well individual's social circle of their new role.PV Kane, Samskara, Chapter VI, History of Dharmasastras, Vol II, Part I, Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute, pages 192-193
Sanskāra, in modern usage, is sometimes used to mean "cultural, social or religious heritage".KK Sinha (2006), Social And Cultural Ethos Of India, , pages 1-2
Rites de passage Samskaras in Hinduism are rites de passage that begin with one's birth, celebrate certain early steps in a baby's growth and their welcome into the world in the presence of friends and family, and continue through various stages of life such as the first learning day, graduation from school, wedding and honeymoon, pregnancy, and raising a family, as well as the final rites associated with cremation.Jörg Gengnagel and Ute Hüsken (2005), Words and Deeds: Hindu and Buddhist Rituals in South Asia, Otto Harrassowitz Verlag, , see Preface Chapter These rites of passage are not uniform, and vary within the diverse traditions of Hinduism. Some may involve formal ceremonies such as yajna (fire) ceremonies with the chanting of Vedic hymns. Others are simple, private affairs involving a couple, with or without friends, other families or a religious person such as a priest or a pandit.
Samskaras are not considered as an end in themselves, but are a means of social recognition as well as the passage of a person from one significant stage of life to another. Various elements of samskaras and rituals of passage are mentioned in the Vedas of Hinduism, one of the oldest known scriptures in the world. The most extensive, but divergent discussions of these rites of passage are found in the numerous Dharmasutras and Grhyasutras from the 1st millennium BCE.Joyce Flueckiger, Everyday Hinduism, John Wiley & Sons, , pages 169-191David Knipe (2015), Vedic Voices: Intimate Narratives of a Living Andhra Tradition, Oxford University Press, , pages 32-37 Many of these rites of passage include formal ceremonies, with ritual readings of hymns, chants and ethical promises, aiming to orient the individual(s) to that which is considered part of dharma (right, good, just, moral, true, spiritual, responsible, duties to family members or society in general), and essential actions such as those associated with last rites and cremation, charitable works, or acts performed out of sraddha or expressions of faith.Mary McGee (2007), Samskara, in The Hindu World (Editors: Mittal and Thursby), Routledge, , pages 332-356
Purpose Gautama Dharmasutra enumerates a large list of "forty outer karma samskaras" and "eight inner karma samskara (good qualities)", all of whom have the purpose of empowering a human being to discover, recognize and reach union with the Brahma-Atman (their Soul, Self, Highest Being).Rajbali Pandey (1969, reprint 2003). The Hindu Sacraments (Saṁskāra) in S. Radhakrishnan (ed.) The Cultural Heritage of India, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 31-33 The ultimate purpose is to inculcate virtues, and samskaras are viewed in the Hindu tradition as means – not as ends – towards ripening and perfecting the human journey of life. The eight good qualities listed by Gautama Dharmasutra are emphasized as more important than the forty samskara rituals, in verses 8.21-8.25, as follows,
The 40 Samskaras The Gautama Dharmasutra list the following forty rituals as outer samskaras:Rajbali Pandey (2013), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 20 Garbhadhana (conception), Pumsavana (rite celebrating the fetus), Simantonnayana (parting of pregnant woman's hair in 8th month), Jatakarman (rite celebrating the birth), Namakarana (naming the child), Annaprashana (baby's first feeding of solid food), Choulam (baby's first haircut, tonsure), and Upanayana (entry into school rite);Brian Smith (1986), Ritual, Knowledge, and Being: Initiation and Veda Study in Ancient India, Numen, Vol. 33, Fasc. 1, pages 65-89 the four vows associated with Vedic study; graduation ritual at the conclusion of school; marriage sva-dharma rite; five sacrifices to gods, ancestors, humans, spirits, and all knowledge; seven remembrances and donations (sacrifices) using cooked food, in the form of ancestral offerings seven remembrances and donations (sacrifices) in the presence of fire (yajna), to mark harvests, seasons and deities seven kinds of Soma sacrifices: agnistoma, atyagnistoma, ukthya, sodasin, vajapeya, atiratra and aptoryama.
To obtain union with Brahman, one must also possess the eight virtues (compassion, patience, non-envy, purity of thought speech and body, inner calm and peace, positive attitude, generosity, and lack of possessiveness).
The 16 samskaras There are diverse number of samskaras in Hinduism, varying by texts between 12 and 18 in the Grhyasutras (Kalpa sastras). Of these, 16 are referred to as "Shodasha Samskaras" ().Rajbali Pandey (1969, reprint 2003). The Hindu Sacraments (Saṁskāra) in S. Radhakrishnan (ed.) The Cultural Heritage of India, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, , page 23
Intent to have a child ritual, Garbhadhana Garbhadhana (IAST: Garbhādhāna, Sanskrit: गर्भाधान), also called Garbhalambhanam, literally means attaining the wealth of the womb. It is a private rite of passage, marking the intent of a couple to have a child. It is a ceremony performed before conception and impregnation.garbhAdhAna&direction=SE&script=HK&link=yes&beginning=0 niSeka Sanskrit - English Dictionary, Cologne Digital Sanskrit Lexicon, Germany In some ancient texts, the word simply refers to the rite of passage where the couple have sex to have a child, and no ceremonies are mentioned. Scholars trace this rite to Vedic hymns, such as those in sections 8.35.10 through 8.35.12 of the Rigveda, where repeated prayers for progeny and prosperity are solemnized,Rajbali Pandey (2013), Hindu Saṁskāras: Socio-religious Study of the Hindu Sacraments, 2nd Edition, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 48-56 with footnotes
The Vedic texts have many passages, where the hymn solemnizes the desire for having a child, without specifying the gender of the child. For example, the Rigveda in section 10.184 states,
The desire for progeny, without mentioning gender, is in many other books of the Rigveda, such as the hymn 10.85.37. The Atharva Veda, similarly in verse 14.2.2, states a ritual invitation to the wife, by her husband to mount the bed for conception, "being happy in mind, here mount the bed; give birth to children for me, your husband". Later texts, such as the Brihadaranyaka Upanishad, in the last chapter detailing the education of a student, include lessons for his Grihastha stage of life.Paul Deussen, Sixty Upanishads of the Veda, Volume 1, Motilal Banarsidass, , pages 534-539 There, the student is taught, that as a husband, he should cook rice for the wife, and they together eat the food in certain way depending on whether they wish for the birth of a daughter or a son, as follows,
According to Shankaracharya, rather than meat the inner pulp of two fruits is cooked with rice.