Buddhist tantric literature refers to the vast and varied literature of the Vajrayāna (or Mantrayāna) Buddhist traditions. The earliest of these works are a genre of Indian Buddhist tantric scriptures, variously named Tantras, Sūtras and Kalpas, which were composed from the 7th century CE onwards. They are followed by later tantric commentaries (called pañjikās and ṭīkās), original compositions by Vajrayana authors (called prakaraṇas and upadeśas), sādhanas (practice texts), ritual manuals (kalpas or vidhis), collections of tantric songs (dohās) odes (stotra), or hymns, and other related works. Tantric Buddhist literature survives in various languages, including Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese. Most Indian sources were composed in Sanskrit, but numerous tantric works were also composed in other languages like Tibetan and Chinese.
Overview
History
Buddhist Tantric texts may have begun appearing during the Gupta Period (320–550 CE). However, the earliest known datable Buddhist Tantra is the Awakening of Mahāvairocana Tantra, which was mentioned and collected by the Chinese pilgrim Wu-xing (無行) c. 680 CE.
Wu-xing also reports that at the time he visited India (7th century), the Mantrayāna (“teaching about mantra”, Chinese: zhenyan jiaofa, 真言教法) was already very popular. Amoghavajra (704–774), a scholar translator who traveled to China, reports a canon of eighteen tantras during the 8th century.
Over time the number of texts increased with numerous Tantric scholars writing commentaries and practice manuals. Buddhist Tantric traditions draw on the Mahayana sutras, and older Buddhist esoteric practices like dhāraṇī recitation texts. Furthermore, earlier Buddhist traditions had maintained a collection of scriptures focused on magical practices, called the Vidyādhara Piṭaka (Wizardry Collection) which included various types of rituals and spells (vidyā). In the account of a Buddhist spell master by Yijing, he even mentions erotic practices associated with this collection.
Buddhist tantras were also influenced by non-buddhist traditions, including Śaiva and Śakta sources, the cults of local deities, and rites related to yakshas and nāgas. The Buddhist Yogini tantras contain the most extensive borrowing from Śaiva and Śakta sources. In some cases, whole passages have been copied. This process has been studied by Alexis Sanderson. Scholars like Phyllis Granoff have termed this extensive borrowing of non-buddhist forms "ritual eclecticism". Buddhist Tantric works continued to be produced in India until the 1500s.
Many early Buddhist Tantric texts, later termed “action Tantras” (kriyā tantra), are mostly collections of magical mantras or phrases for mostly worldly ends called mantrakalpas (mantra manuals) and they do not call themselves Tantras. Later Tantric texts from the eighth century onward (termed variously Yogatantra, Mahayoga, and Yoginī Tantras) advocated union with a deity (deity yoga), sacred sounds (mantras), techniques for manipulation of the subtle body and other secret methods with which to achieve swift Buddhahood. Some Tantras contain antinomian and transgressive practices such as ingesting alcohol and other forbidden substances as well as sexual rituals. Some of these later Buddhist Tantras (especially the Yoginītantras) are clearly influenced by Śaiva Vidyāpīṭha scriptures.
Buddhist Tantra quickly spread out of India into nearby countries like Tibet and Nepal in the eighth century, as well as to Southeast Asia and East Asia through overland and maritime trade routes. Buddhist Tantra arrived in China during the Tang dynasty (where it was known as Tangmi) and was brought to Japan by Kukai (774–835), where it is known as Shingon. Tantric texts were brought to Tibet in two historical periods, the eighth century and the 11th century (which are called the "early translations" and "second dissemination" texts). Buddhist tantra remains the main Buddhist tradition in Nepal, Mongolia and Tibet where it is known as Vajrayana.
Origin myths Buddhist sources told various myths about the origin of the tantras. One origin myth states that the tantras were initially taught by the Buddha but were hidden away. Then they were rediscovered by Nāgārjuna in an iron stupa in south India. Other origin myths focus around a mythic king of Oḍiyāna named Indrabhūti, who received the tantras with the aid of Vajrapani.
Furthermore, as Gray writes, "there is another major genre of tantric Buddhist origin myths, which we might term “conversion myths” since they feature the founding figure, an awakened buddha, converting Śaiva Hindu deities to Buddhism". These myths were useful in explaining the many Hindu elements which were found in some Buddhist tantric texts. In one such myth told by Śubhakarasiṃha (善无畏, 637–735) and Yixing (一行, 683– 727), Vairocana Buddha turns himself into Mahākāla in order to swallow and subdue Shiva and the ḍākinīs who were killing and eating humans in order to obtain the essence in their hearts. After being subdued, these figures were said to have become Buddhist.
Texts
Classes of tantric texts There are various ways to categorize and schematize the various tantric primary sources. The earliest Indian classification scheme is found in the work of the commentator Buddhaguhya (c. 700). He outlined just two types of tantras: outward oriented Kriya tantras (which contain much ritual directed as external objects like a Buddha statue) and the Yoga tantras which focus on inward contemplative practices in which the yogi visualizes themselves as the deity. The commentator Vilāsavajra meanwhile, sometimes added a third category: Carya, which was intermediate between Kriya and Yoga. In another text meanwhile, Vilāsavajra discusses a different third category: Upaya, which referred to more transgressive tantras that made use of sexual yoga.
The Classification of Tantras in Tibetan Buddhism differs by tradition. All traditions agree on three types: Kriyayoga, Caryayoga, and Yogatantra. In the "Ancient" (Nyingma) school, these three "outer tantras" are followed three further "inner tantras": Mahayoga, Anuyoga, and Atiyoga. In the "New Translation" (Sarma) schools, the "higher" classes are called "supreme yoga tantras" (anuttarayogatantra).Tsong-kha-pa, The Great Exposition of Secret Mantra, Part One in Tsong-kha-pa et al. (2016), pp. 63 - 155. The Sarma classification systems was constructed by Indo-Tibetan scholastics and date to the mid-12th century based on Indian works.
A fourfold schema can be found in the work of the Indian scholar Śraddhākaravarman, who writes of "four doors" to the Vajratana: Kriyatantra, Caryatantra, Yoga- tantra, and Mahayogatantra. He also mentions a further sub-class of Mahayoga, Niruttarayoga, which refers to Mahayoga tantras with mandalas populated by female deities, i.e., the Yogini tantras. Ratnākaraśānti's (11th century) schema contains the same four latter classes, but adds Niruttarayoga as its own fifth category. Kanha's Yogaratnamala meanwhile, also has four: Kriya, Carya, Yoga, Niruttarayoga. Thus, the Tibetan schema is based on these later Indic classifications schemes.
In Tibetan traditions, the most important tantras are those of the "highest yoga tantra", "Mahayoga" or Atiyoga" classification. There are also various other classes of tantric works, such as hagiographies of great masters (namtars), tantric verse works, songs, meditation manuals, and instructional texts (upadesha). The Nyingma school also has a special category of scripture which were discovered or revealed in Tibet, known as Terma. Some of these are classified as "tantras" but were composed in Tibetan by Tibetans.
Meanwhile, in Shingon Buddhism and Chinese Esoteric Buddhism, these classifications are not used. These traditions mainly rely on the Mahāvairocana Sūtra (Chinese: 大日經; pinyin: Dàrì jīng; rōmaji: Dainichi kyō), the Vajraśekhara Sūtra (Chinese: 金剛頂經; pinyin: Jīngāngdǐng jīng; rōmaji: Kongōchō kyō), and the Susiddhikara Sūtra (Chinese: 蘇悉地羯羅經; pinyin: Sūxīdìjiéluó jīng; rōmaji: Soshitsujikara kyō).
While traditional schemas classify tantric texts based on whether it is focused on "kriya" (ritual action) or "yoga" (contemplative practice), this does not mean that ritual topics are absent in the yoga tantras, which themselves contain extensive sections on ritual. Likewise, texts labeled "kriya tantra" also contain teachings on yoga.
Many tantric Buddhist texts have titles other than "Tantra", including sutra, kalpa, rajñi, stotra, and doha. The Major Buddhist Tantras also accumulated secondary literature, such as 'Explanatory Tantras' (vyākhyātantra), commentaries (pañjikās, ṭīkās etc.) and sadhana literature which outline specific tantric ritual practices and meditations.
Dhāraṇīs are an earlier class of Buddhist texts which are not specifically "tantric" or "Vajrayanist" in nature. They may be found in classic Mahayana sutras like the Lotus Sutra, and thus pre-date the development of Buddhist tantra. Dhāraṇī practices and texts were part of mainstream Mahayana Buddhism well before the rise of Vajrayana, and as such, are not "tantric" works nor specifically connected to esoteric or Mantrayāna Buddhism. However, some tantras and tantric works do make use of dhāraṇīs in a broader tantric context and later canonical collections included numerous dhāraṇīs into the tantra classification. Indeed, some scholars like Koichi Shinohara argue that the Buddhist tantric literature grew out of the earlier Mahayana dhāraṇī texts through a process of gradual expansion and the incorporation of new ritual elements (such as mandalas and visualization practices).
There are between 1500 and 2000 surviving Indian Buddhist Tantric texts in Sanskrit, and over 2000 more Tantras solely survive in translation (mostly Tibetan or Chinese). In the Tibetan canons, there are 450 Tantras in the Kanjur collection and 2400 in the Tengyur.
Indian tantras
The most important texts of the Vajrayana Buddhist traditions are the "tantras". The term tantra has many meanings, but one of the most common meaning is simply a specific type of divinely revealed text or scripture. In the Buddhist context, tantras were considered to be the words of a Buddha or bodhisattva (buddhavacana).
Unlike Mahayana sutras, tantras are quite technical, outlining the details of rituals, such as how to construct a mandala. They also contain unique tantric terminology and "coded language" (sandhyā-bhāṣa), which is metaphorical and secretive. They often omit important details and misdirect the reader, thus maintaining secrecy and requiring further commentary to be properly understood. Their original language was Sanskrit, but not classical Sanskrit (Pāṇinean) per se, since tantras often include different word forms or grammar associated with regional Middle-Indic languages, like Apabraṃśa. Apabraṃśa is also often used for tantric songs and poems.
Tantric scriptures were also considered to be secret by tantric Buddhist communities, and would only be revealed to disciples which had gone through the necessary initiations. Buddhist tantras promise both the ability to attain worldly magical powers (laukikasiddhi) and the surepeme achievement (lokottarasiddhi) of Buddhahood in one lifetime.