Anindilyakwa () is an Australian Aboriginal language spoken by the Anindilyakwa people on Groote Eylandt and Bickerton Island in the Gulf of Carpentaria in the Northern Territory of Australia. Anindilyakwa is a multiple-classifying prefixing language in which all traditional nouns, adjectives, personal and demonstrative pronouns are prefixed for person, number and gender. According to the 2021 Australian Census, Anindilyakwa was spoken natively by 1,516 people, an increase from 1,283 in 2006.
Names The local Anindilyakwa people refer to the language as Amamalya Ayakwa ( means 'true' and means 'words'). However, Anindilyakwa is still commonly used.
Before a standard orthography was established, the name Anindilyakwa had been spelt in multiple ways. These included Andiljangwa, Andilyaugwa, Aninhdhilyagwa, Enindiljaugwa, Enindhilyagwa, Wanindilyaugwaz. The language was also known as Ingura, Yingguru, and Groote Eylandt after its location.
Linguistic classification Once considered a family level isolate, Van Egmond (2012) has demonstrated Anindilyakwa to be part of the Eastern branch of the Gunwinyguan family, relating it to Nunggubuyu and (more distantly) Ngandi, using correspondences between core vocabulary, verbal morphological forms, phonemes, and verbal inflectional paradigms.Van Egmond, M-E. (2012). "Enindhilyakwa phonology, morphosyntax and genetic position." Doctoral thesis. University of Sydney. pp. 314–70.Bowern, C. (2017). "Language isolates of Australia." in Campbell, L., ed. Language Isolates. Abingdon: Routledge: 323–43
Phonology
Vowels The analysis of Anindilyakwa's vowels is open to interpretation. Stokes analyses it as having 4 phonemic vowels, . Leeding analyses it as having just 2, with allophones [ i ɪ u ɯ ə o a ] and [ a æ aɪ æɪ e eɪ ɒ aʊ ], respectively.
Consonants Peripheral Coronal Bilabial Velar Laminal Apicalrounded unrounded Palatal Dental Alveolar Retroflex Plosive Nasal Lateral () Rhotic Glide
Phonotactics Anindilyakwa words almost always end with a final vowel 'a'. Clusters of up to 3 consonants such as 'ngw' can occur within words.
Grammar
Noun classes Anindilyakwa has 5 noun classes, or genders, each marked by a prefix:
Male human n- non-human y- Female human or non-human d- Inanimate neuter a- vegetable m-
For bound pronouns, instead of "human male" and "non-human male" classes there is a single "male" class.
All traditional Anindilyakwa nouns carry a class prefix, but some loanwords may lack them.
Numerals The language traditionally had numerals up to 20 but since the introduction of English, English words are now used almost exclusively for numbers above 5.
Anindilyakwa uses a quinary (base-5) number system, where numbers act like adjectives and must agree with the noun class of the word they describe. For example, 'one crocodile' is , and 'two turtles' is , with the number prefix matching the noun class of the noun.
'Nothing' is expressed by , 'not any'. There is no term for '"infinity", but the concept "innumerable" can be expressed by: 'there are too many stars to count.' 1112123134145156167178189191020
Adjectives Size degrees is done in 2 grades the positive and a diminutive (), although reduplication of this word is possible for an intensifying effect.
Pronouns
Personal pronouns Anindilyakwa features 5 grammatical numbers for pronouns: singular, feminine dual, masculine dual, trial, and plural.
The language has a clusivity distinction common in many Aboriginal Australian languages – 'inclusive we' and 'exclusive we'. 'Inclusive we' includes explicitly the addressee (that is, 'you and I, and possibly others'). 'Exclusive we' excludes explicitly the addressee (that is, 'he/she/they and I, but not you'), regardless of who else may be involved.
Singular Dual Trial Plural male femalerowspan=2 exclusiveinclusive- 2nd person 3rd person
Possessive pronouns With the exception of my, possessive pronouns in Anindilyakwa replace the -uwa suffix from the singular or plural pronouns with -langwa 'belonging to'.
EnglishAnindilyakwaMyYours (singular)Yours (plural)Ours (exclusive)Ours (inclusive)TheirsHisHers
+SuffixesSuffixGlossbecausethe one that's better or bestby (beside), in, at, on, when, with (people)mother of childbecause (on verbs)about, of, from (on verbs); afterfrom (by means of), with (by means of)etc., and the restbelonging to, from, ofaround, alongalong, along and around, over (in the sense of travelling over an area), throughin (by means of); only, just (one); with (by means of)for (for the purpose of), so (that), to make, used on time wordsall over, still (in sense of being the same), used on time wordsto For kinship nouns, there are 7 possessive suffixes used that distinguish between first, second and thirds, singular or plural numbers, and third person genders.
+Suffixes for kinship possession Singular Non-singular Suffix Example Suffix Example 1st person 2nd person 3rd person Male Female
Language maintenance
Groote Eylandt Language Centre The Groote Eylandt Language Centre (GELC) promotes, maintains, and preserves Anindilyakwa. They are based in Angurugu with offices in Umbakumba and Bickerton Island. It hosts a significant collection of language and cultural resources relating to the Warnindilyakwa people. The Centre undertakes language projects both large and small and offers services such as language recording and resource development, language advice and expertise, and translation.
Previously known as Groote Eylandt Linguistics, Church Mission Society ran the department until 2006. The CMS created the orthography with the Latin script to translate Bible texts into Anindilyakwa. The centre now operates under the "Preserving Culture" department of the Anindilyakwa Land Council.
GELC has compiled and published the Anindilyakwa dictionary "The Book about Everything", as well as producing an online dictionary, and a web app with the assistance of the Australian Literacy and Numeracy Foundation. They also run a YouTube channel with an expanding content of videos and resources in Anindilyakwa.
Lexicon
Macassan influence
Makassar people from the region of Sulawesi (modern-day Indonesia) began visiting the coast of northern Australia sometime around the early to middle 1700s. This happened yearly until the introduction of the White Australia Policy in 1906. The Macassans visited Groote Eylandt for trade, particularly for highly prized trepang in the South China Sea. The Macassans also brought with them tamarinds (), dugout canoes (), tobacco () and beer (). Evan analyses that there are potentially 35 Makassarese words, mostly nouns, that have entered the Anindilyakwa language, including many place names such as Umbakumba (Malay word for 'lapping of waves') and Bartalumba Bay (Macassan word for 'the big rock'). +Words with Macassan originEnglishMakassareseAnindilyakwaEnglishMakassareseAnindilyakwalapping of wavesthe big rockBatalumba Bayalcoholtobaccoanchorhorsetrepangshovel spearfish hookmachetetamarindfish baitmaterial/clothknifedug-out canoecoconutbookbosswhite personlanterngunbillycannailaxeboatrudderboxmast/sailnorth-west windsouth windnorth-east wind 'SE wind'north-east windeast wind 'SE wind'
Questions +QuestionsEnglishAnindilyakwaEnglishAnindilyakwaWhere?/Where is it?'Who?'Where to?/Where are you going?'Who's that?'Where from?/Where did you come from?'Whose?'Where at?/Where are you?'Can I sit here?'When?'How much?/How many?'What is your name?'You good?/How are you?'What?'What are you doing?'Why? (for what reason?)'What are you looking at?'Why? (for what purpose?)What with?/How? (By what means?)What's the time?
Animals +Land Animals ()EnglishAnindilyakwaEnglishAnindilyakwaCrocodileWallaby, kangarooGeckoDingoGoannaFrilled lizardBlue-tongued lizardTurtleRock wallabyBandicootNative-catMice, ratsPossumSugar gliderEchidnaSnakes +Introduced animalsEnglishAnindilyakwaEnglishAnindilyakwaDogPigChickenCatHorseCowDeerGoat +Fish (Akwalya)EnglishAnindilyakwaEnglishAnindilyakwaFishTurtleSharkStingraySawfishShellfishOctopusCrabDugongDolphinTrepangStarfishFrog
In popular culture
Music
Emily Wurramara is an ARIA-nominated Anindilyakwa singer and songwriter from Groote Eylandt. She writes and sings songs in both English and Anindilyakwa. Yilila is a band from Numbulwar. The band performs their music in Wubuy, Anindilyakwa, Maccassan language and English. Other noteworthy bands include Mambali from Numbulwar, Groote Eylandt Band from Angurugu and Salt Lake Band from Umbakumba.
Film and television
The Last Wave (released in the USA as Black Rain) is a 1977 Australian mystery drama film directed by Peter Weir where a white lawyer who represents a group of Aboriginal men accused of murder.Variety film review; 16 November 1977, p. 21. It starrs Yolngu man David Gulpilil as well as local Anindilyakwa men Nandjiwarra Amagula, Walter, Roy Bara, Cedrick Lalara, and Morris Lalara who portray the men on trial. Bakala is a 2017 award-winning short film written and directed by Nikolas Lachajczak and told entirely in the Anindilyakwa language. It follows the story of Anindilyakwa man, Steve 'Bakala' Wurramara, who is afflicted with Machado–Joseph disease (MJD), a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder that results in a lack of muscle control and coordination of the upper and lower extremities. Anija is a 2011 award-winning short film written and directed by David Hansen. It is filmed mainly in the Anindilyakwa language and follows the experiences of one family dealing with the effects of alcohol addiction. The film won Best Indigenous Resource at the Australian Teachers of Media (ATOM) Awards in 2011. Anindilyakwa was featured in Spread the Word, an Indigenous Australian languages show on The Disney Channel. The show featured the Anindilyakwa word which translates to 'kicking a tree to get something off of it.'
Commemoration
In 2019 the Royal Australian Mint issued a 50 cent coin to celebrate the International Year of Indigenous Languages which features 14 different words for 'money' from Australian Indigenous languages including for Anindilyakwa. The coin was designed by Aleksandra Stokic in consultation with Indigenous language custodian groups.
References
External links Anindilyakwa in the Groote Eylandt Language Centre Entries for Enindhilyagwa from Rosetta Project, stored in the Internet Archive State of Indigenous Languages in Australia (2001). Department of the Environment and Heritage.