Deng Zhi (178 - 251), courtesy name Bomiao, was a government official, diplomat and military general of the state of Shu Han during the Three Kingdoms period of China. A descendant of Deng Yu, Deng Zhi started his career in the late Eastern Han dynasty under the warlord Liu Bei as a low-level officer in Pi County. After Liu Bei discovered his talent, Deng Zhi steadily rose through the ranks to become a county prefect and later a commandery administrator and imperial secretary. In 223, the Shu regent Zhuge Liang sent him as Shu's envoy to meet Sun Quan, the ruler of Shu's ally state Wu, and reestablish the Wu–Shu alliance against their common rival state Wei. Deng Zhi succeeded in his mission and earned praise from Sun Quan for strengthening Wu–Shu ties. In 227, Deng Zhi became a military general and he participated in the first Shu invasion of Wei by leading a decoy force with Zhao Yun to distract the Wei general Cao Zhen. Although they lost the battle, Deng Zhi and Zhao Yun managed to rally their troops to put up a firm defence during their retreat and minimise their losses. Following Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Deng Zhi rose to higher general ranks and was stationed in present-day Chongqing for about 10 years before he was recalled back to the Shu capital Chengdu in his 70s to serve as General of Chariots and Cavalry. In 248, he suppressed a rebellion in Fuling (around present-day Pengshui County, Chongqing). He died in 251.
Early life Deng Zhi was born in the late Eastern Han dynasty in Xinye County (新野縣), Yiyang Commandery (義陽郡), which is present-day Xinye County, Henan. He was a descendant of Deng Yu, a general who served under Emperor Guangwu in the early Eastern Han dynasty.(鄧芝字伯苗，義陽新野人，漢司徒禹之後也。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
Towards the end of the Eastern Han dynasty, Deng Zhi migrated to Yi Province (covering present-day Sichuan and Chongqing), where he did not receive as much recognition from the locals as he expected. He then decided to consult Zhang Yu, a low-ranking official in Yi Province who was also a famous fortune teller. Zhang Yu told him: "Sir, once you are above the age of 70, you will rise to the position of General-in-Chief and will receive a peerage as a marquis."(漢末入蜀，未見知待。時益州從事張裕善相，芝往從之，裕謂芝曰：「君年過七十，位至大將軍，封侯。」) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
Deng Zhi later heard that Pang Xi, the Administrator of Baxi Commandery (巴西郡; around present-day Langzhong, Sichuan), had a reputation for hosting retainers, so he travelled there and became one of Pang Xi's retainers.(芝聞巴西太守龐羲好士，往依焉。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
Service under Liu Bei In 214, after the warlord Liu Bei seized control of Yi Province from the provincial governor Liu Zhang, Deng Zhi was appointed as a low-level officer in charge of the granary in Pi County. One day, when Liu Bei visited Pi County, he spoke to Deng Zhi and discovered his talent. He was so impressed with Deng Zhi that he appointed Deng Zhi as the Prefect of Pi County, and later promoted him to the position of Administrator of Guanghan Commandery (廣漢郡; around present-day Guanghan, Sichuan).(先主定益州，芝為郫邸閣督。先主出至郫，與語，大奇之，擢為郫令，遷廣漢太守。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
After the fall of the Eastern Han dynasty in 220, Liu Bei declared himself emperor in May 221 and established the state of Shu to challenge the legitimacy of the state of Wei, which replaced the Eastern Han dynasty. Around this time, due to his good performance in office, Deng Zhi was reassigned from Guanghan Commandery to the Shu capital, Chengdu, to serve as a Master of Writing (尚書) in the imperial secretariat.(所在清嚴有治績，入為尚書。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
As Shu's envoy to Wu Between August 221 and October 222, Liu Bei went to war with his former ally Sun Quan, who broke their alliance in 219 by seizing Liu Bei's territories in southern Jing Province and executing Guan Yu, one of Liu Bei's top generals. However, he ended up suffering a disastrous defeat at the Battle of Xiaoting against Sun Quan's forces.
Before Liu Bei died in June 223, Sun Quan sought to make peace with him after the Battle of Xiaoting. In response, Liu Bei had sent Song Wei (宋瑋) and Fei Yi as his representatives to meet Sun Quan and agree on a truce.(先主薨於永安。先是，吳王孫權請和，先主累遣宋瑋、費禕等與相報荅。) Sanguozhi vol. 45. Following Liu Bei's death, Zhuge Liang, the Imperial Chancellor of Shu, became regent to Liu Bei's son and successor Liu Shan as Liu Shan was still underage at the time.
Just when Zhuge Liang feared that Sun Quan would break the truce and was unsure of what to do,(丞相諸葛亮深慮權聞先主殂隕，恐有異計，未知所如。) Sanguozhi vol. 45. Deng Zhi came to see him and told him: "His Majesty is still young and vulnerable. He has only recently ascended the throne. We should send an emissary to Wu to reestablish friendly ties with them." Zhuge Liang replied: "I have thought about this for a long time but I haven't found a suitable person to do this. Now I have found the right person." When Deng Zhi asked him who he had in mind, Zhuge Liang replied: "You, Sir." He then sent Deng Zhi as Shu's envoy to Wu to meet Sun Quan.(芝見亮曰：「今主上幼弱，初在位，宜遣大使重申吳好。」亮荅之曰：「吾思之乆矣，未得其人耳，今日始得之。」芝問其人為誰，亮曰：「即使君也。」乃遣芝脩好於權。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
First trip to Wu When Deng Zhi showed up in Wu, Sun Quan refused to meet him so he wrote a memorial to Sun Quan as follows: "I came here today not just for the sake of Shu, but also for the sake of Wu."(權果狐疑，不時見芝，芝乃自表請見權曰：「臣今來亦欲為吳，非但為蜀也。」) Sanguozhi vol. 45. Sun Quan then granted Deng Zhi an audience and told him: "I genuinely wish to form an alliance with Shu. However, I am worried that the ruler of Shu is still young and vulnerable, and that Shu is so small and weak that it can't save itself from being conquered by Wei. That's why I am having second thoughts."(權乃見之，語芝曰：「孤誠願與蜀和親，然恐蜀主幼弱，國小勢偪，為魏所乘，不自保全，以此猶豫耳。」) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
Deng Zhi replied:
Sun Quan thought for a long time before replying: "Sir, you are right." He then decided to break ties with Wei, form an alliance with Shu, and then appointed Zhang Wen as his envoy to follow Deng Zhi back to Shu.(權默然良乆曰：「君言是也。」遂自絕魏，與蜀連和，遣張溫報聘於蜀。) Sanguozhi vol. 45. Deng Zhi would also negotiate for the return of Zhang Yi who had been captured in a revolt by the locals in Nanzhong led by Yong Kai and sent to Wu.會先主薨，諸葛亮遣鄧芝使吳，亮令芝言次可從權請裔。裔自至吳數年，流徙伏匿，權未之知也，故許芝遣裔。Sanguozhi vol.40.
Second trip to Wu In Shu, after Zhang Wen reaffirmed the Wu–Shu alliance against Wei, Deng Zhi accompanied him on his journey home and paid another diplomatic visit to Wu. During this time, Sun Quan told Deng Zhi: "How wonderful it would be if two rulers can rule the Empire together in peacetime!"(蜀復令芝重往，權謂芝曰：「若天下太平，二主分治，不亦樂乎！」) Sanguozhi vol. 45. Deng Zhi replied: Sun Quan laughed and told Deng Zhi: "You are truly an honest person!"(權大笑曰：「君之誠欵，乃當爾邪！」) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
Sun Quan later wrote a letter to Zhuge Liang as follows: "Ding Gong does it superficially while Yin Hua does it incompletely. Only Deng Zhi does well in bridging ties between our two states."(權與亮書曰：「丁厷掞張，陰化不盡；和合二國，唯有鄧芝。」) Sanguozhi vol. 45. Sun Quan's treatment of Deng Zhi compared with Fei Yi and was considered superior to another favoured envoy Zong Yu.權大笑，嘉其抗直，甚愛待之，見敬亞於鄧芝、費禕。Sanguozhi vol.45.
First Shu invasion of Wei
In 227, Zhuge Liang ordered troops from throughout Shu to mobilise and assemble in Hanzhong Commandery in preparation for a large-scale military campaign against Shu's rival state, Wei. During this time, he commissioned Deng Zhi as General Who Spreads Martial Might (揚武將軍) and appointed him as Central Supervisor of the Army (中監軍).(及亮北住漢中，以芝為中監軍、揚武將軍。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
In the spring of 228, Zhuge Liang ordered Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi to lead a detachment of troops to Ji Valley (箕谷) and pretend to attack Mei County (郿縣; southeast of present-day Fufeng County, Shaanxi) via Xie Valley (斜谷). Their mission was to distract and hold the Wei forces' attention, while Zhuge Liang led the Shu main army to attack Mount Qi (祁山; the mountainous regions around present-day Li County, Gansu).([建興]六年春，揚聲由斜谷道取郿，使趙雲、鄧芝為疑軍，據箕谷，魏大將軍曹真舉衆拒之。亮身率諸軍攻祁山，戎陣整齊，賞罰肅而號令明，南安、天水、安定三郡叛魏應亮，關中響震。) Sanguozhi vol. 35. In response to the Shu invasion, the Wei emperor Cao Rui sent Zhang He to attack Zhuge Liang at Mount Qi,(魏明帝西鎮長安，命張郃拒亮， ...) Sanguozhi vol. 35. and Cao Zhen to attack Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi at Ji Valley.([建興]五年，隨諸葛亮駐漢中。明年，亮出軍，揚聲由斜谷道，曹真遣大衆當之。亮令雲與鄧芝往拒，而身攻祁山。雲、芝兵弱敵彊，失利於箕谷，然歛衆固守，不至大敗。) Sanguozhi vol. 36.
Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi lost to Cao Zhen at the battle in Ji Valley because Zhuge Liang had given them command of the weaker soldiers while he led the better troops to attack Mount Qi. Nevertheless, Zhao Yun and Deng Zhi managed to rally their men into putting up a firm defence as they retreated, thus minimising their losses.
In the meantime, the Shu vanguard led by Ma Su suffered a disastrous defeat at Jieting (街亭; or Jie Village, located east of present-day Qin'an County, Gansu) against Wei forces under Zhang He's command. Zhang He then seized the opportunity to attack and recapture three Wei commanderies which defected to the Shu side.(諸葛亮出祁山。加郃位特進，遣督諸軍，拒亮將馬謖於街亭。謖依阻南山，不下據城。郃絕其汲道，擊，大破之。南安、天水、安定郡反應亮，郃皆破平之。) Sanguozhi vol. 17.(亮使馬謖督諸軍在前，與郃戰于街亭。謖違亮節度，舉動失宜，大為郃所破。) Sanguozhi vol. 35. Upon learning of the Shu defeats at Ji Valley and Jieting, Zhuge Liang pulled back the Shu forces and retreated to Hanzhong Commandery by the late spring of 228. As a senior official, he would be listed by Zhuge Liang among the names calling for the sack of Li Yan for the attempted cover-up of his failure with supplies.Gōngwén Shàng Shàngshū, annotation to Sanguozhi vol.40.
Guarding Jiangzhou and pacifying Fuling After Zhuge Liang's death in 234, Deng Zhi rose to the positions of Vanguard Military Adviser (前軍師) and General of the Vanguard (前將軍). He was also appointed as the nominal Inspector of Yan Province as Yan Province was not Shu territory. In addition, he was enfeoffed as a village marquis under the title "Marquis of Yangwu Village" (陽武亭侯). Shortly after, he was put in charge of guarding Jiangzhou (江州; present-day Chongqing) near the eastern border of Shu.(亮卒，遷前軍師前將軍，領兖州刺史，封陽武亭侯，頃之為督江州。) Sanguozhi vol. 45. His fame was compared to other border commanders Wang Ping and Ma Zhong.是時，鄧芝在東，馬忠在南，平在北境，咸著名跡。Sanguozhi vol.43.
When he was at Jiangzhou, Deng Zhi had several exchanges with the Wu emperor Sun Quan, who also sent him expensive gifts on numerous occasions.(權數與芝相聞，饋遺優渥。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
In 243, Deng Zhi was promoted to General of Chariots and Cavalry (車騎將軍) and granted acting imperial authority.(延熈六年，就遷為車騎將軍，後假節。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
In 248, the people in Fuling (涪陵; around present-day Pengshui County, Chongqing), a small vassal state under Shu, killed their Commandant and started a rebellion. In response, Deng Zhi led troops to attack the rebels, defeated them and executed their leaders. Peace was restored in Fuling.([延熈]十一年，涪陵國人殺都尉反叛，芝率軍征討，即梟其渠帥，百姓安堵。) Sanguozhi vol. 45.
Death Deng Zhi died in 251.([延熈]十四年卒。) Sanguozhi vol. 45. at the age of 74 (by East Asian age reckoning). He was buried in a location about five li southwest of present-day Zitong County, Sichuan.(蜀漢鄧芝墓，縣西南五里，有二石闕，南陽人，仕蜀為車騎將軍。) Records of Zitong County from the Xianfeng era (咸豐梓潼縣志).
Encounter with the ape The Chronicles of Huayang recorded that when Deng Zhi led Shu imperial forces to suppress the rebellion in Fuling in 248, he encountered a black ape in the hills. As he enjoyed firing crossbows, he decided to use the ape for target practice and fired a bolt at it. The ape pulled out the bolt from its wound and used twigs and leaves to nurse the wound. When Deng Zhi saw that, he said: "Alas! I have violated the laws of nature. I will die soon!"(華陽國志曰：芝征涪陵，見玄猿緣山。芝性好弩，手自射猿，中之。猿拔其箭，卷木葉塞其創。芝曰：「嘻，吾違物之性，其將死矣！」) Huayang Guo Zhi annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 45.