Manchu ( ) is a critically endangered Tungusic language native to the historical region of Manchuria in Northeast China. As the traditional native language of the Manchus, it was the national language of the Qing dynasty (1644–1912) of China, although today the vast majority of Manchus speak only Mandarin Chinese. Several thousand can speak Manchu as a second language through governmental primary education or free classes for adults in classrooms or online.
The Manchu language has high historical value for historians of China, especially for the Qing dynasty. Manchu-language texts supply information that is unavailable in Chinese, and when both Manchu and Chinese versions of a given text exist, they provide controls for understanding the Chinese.
Like most Siberian languages, Manchu is an agglutinative language that demonstrates limited vowel harmony. It has been demonstrated that it is derived mainly from the Jurchen language though there are many loan words from Mongolian and Chinese. Its script is vertically written and taken from the Mongolian script (which in turn derives from Aramaic via Sogdian and then Uyghur). Although Manchu does not have the kind of grammatical gender found in most European languages, some gendered words in Manchu are distinguished by different stem vowels (vowel inflection), as in , 'father', and , 'mother'.
Names The Qing dynasty used various Mandarin Chinese expressions to refer to the Manchu language, such as "Qingwen" () and "Qingyu" () ("Qing language"). The term "national" was also applied to writing in Manchu, as in Guowen (), in addition to Guoyu () ("national language"), which was used by previous non-Han dynasties to refer to their languages and, in modern times, to the Standard Chinese language. In the Manchu-language version of the Treaty of Nerchinsk, the term "Chinese language" (Dulimbai gurun i bithe) referred to the Chinese, Manchu, and Mongol languages, three separate language groups, not just one language.
History
Monolingualism to bilingualism Manchu is a southern Tungusic language. Whilst Northern Tungus languages such as Evenki retain traditional structure, the Chinese language is a source of major influence upon Manchu, altering its form and vocabulary. It was called the "Qing language" (Qingyu or Qingwen) or the "national language" (guoyu) in Chinese. In Manchu, it was called Manju gisun, the "Manchu language".
While most Manchus eventually lost their ability to speak the Manchu language by the end of the Qing dynasty, the Manchus of the early Qing were predominantly monolingual Manchu speakers. This lasted until the reign of the Shunzhi Emperor (1644-1661).Yu Hsiao-jung, Manchu Rule over China and the Attrition of the Manchu Language Initially the Eight Banners and military institutions handled affairs exclusively in Manchu. Bannermen, no matter the ethnicity, were expected to be proficient in the Manchu language. In practice there were reports in the early 18th century that Mongol soldiers only understood commands in Mongolian. Manchu was also used in creative works such as poems, songs, and stories.
The Manchus that expanded the Qing dynasty's territory were basically monolingual Manchu speakers. Before 1644, proficiency in Chinese was considered the domain of specialists, and among ordinary Manchu bannermen, knowledge of Chinese, especially written Chinese, was considered unusual. However, most soldiers lacked the ability to write in any language. Only those who were lucky enough to receive formal education in anticipation of a promotion were taught how to write in Manchu. Most of these individuals were stationed in Beijing. It took until the 1670s before familiarity with spoken Chinese eliminated the need to assign Chinese translators for Manchu officials.
The Qing emperors showed concern very early on that learning too much Chinese would threaten Manchu distinctiveness. In 1654, the Shunzhi Emperor proclaimed that the Manchus should stop learning Chinese because it would lead to a gradual loss of Manchu ways. Since Chinese books had been translated into Manchu, Shunzhi reasoned that Manchus could make do with only knowing Manchu. Perhaps due to this proclamation, it was not uncommon for Manchu officials up until the early 18th century to lack the ability to read or write Chinese. However, when an elite bannerman admitted that he did not know Chinese during his time as Gansu's provincial commander, the Jiaqing Emperor (r. 1661-1722) reprimanded him for not having a basic understanding of Manchu and Chinese writing. In 1723, a censor complained about the lack of Chinese proficiency among the Manchu staff in the Six Ministries. All documents submitted by the provinces were in Chinese and were reviewed by the Manchu and Chinese departments, but there were Manchus who could not read Chinese. He recommended appointing people who at least knew Chinese to vacancies in the Manchu department. Within a few months, knowledge of Chinese was made a requirement for Manchus in the Grand Secretariat, and in 1725, a requirement for top provincial officials.
The lack of Manchu officials skilled in reading and writing Chinese was brought up again in 1725 and 1735. It was probably not until the 1750s that knowledge of Chinese among top Manchu officials became universal. When the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1722–1735) sent a message in Chinese to the Xi'an general Yansin, he could not read the letter, and had to distribute the letter in pieces to different people for them to translate in order to maintain secrecy.
Decline in the garrisons After the mid-18th century, the Qing court shifted its language policy from promoting Chinese to Manchu. In an effort to preserve the Manchu identity, the imperial government instituted Manchu language classes and examinations for the bannermen, offering rewards to those who excelled in the language. Chinese classics and fiction were translated into Manchu and a body of Manchu literature accumulated. As the Yongzheng Emperor (r. 1722–1735) explained, "If some special encouragement ... is not offered, the ancestral language will not be passed on and learned."Edward J. M. Rhoads, Manchus & Han: Ethnic Relations and Political Power in Late Qing and Early Republican China, 1861–1928. University of Washington Press, 2000. Pages 52–54. . Partially available on Google Books
Despite the imperial court's efforts to preserve the Manchu language, its decline had already been noted among the bannermen in the garrisons by the early 18th century. Language loss seems to have occurred earlier in the provinces than in the capital and was a noted problem even prior to the 1720s. In 1708, the Xi'an garrison general Siju reported that teachers had been assigned to banner soldiers to teach them Manchu and forbid the use of Chinese language. Xi'an was the most Manchu of all the provincial garrisons, so if such measures were necessary there, it is likely that other provincial garrisons experienced greater language loss. When the Yongzheng emperor turned his attention to the garrisons a few years after the start of his reign, he found that Manchu language proficiency was already in serious decline. The Nanjing garrison general Yonggina reported that his 17-year-old son could neither speak or write Manchu with ease. The Ningxia general Sibe noted that officers conducted random inspections on individual archery skills and spoken Manchu. A report from Taiyuan in 1724 said that out of 180 Manchu soldiers on standby, only 87 could both shoot well from horseback and speak Manchu. A 1735 report from Hangzhou stated plainly that only half of the Manchu and Mongol troops could speak Manchu or at least say a few words in reply. Judging by these reports, it is likely that with the exception of Xi'an, half the Manchus stationed in the provincial garrisons had lost the ability to speak Manchu by the 1760s.
One reason why language loss occurred at an accelerated rate in the garrisons compared to the capital was the lack of official schools. In Beijing, schools had been established as early as the Shunzhi reign (1644-1661). The banner commander at Kaifeng, Hesing, reported in 1734 that many of the 300 Manchu youths did not speak Manchu because there was no regular Manchu school. Hesing noted that even finding good teachers to teach Chinese was difficult, and recommended building both a Manchu and Chinese school for young Manchus. Unlike the larger Manchu populations located in Beijing and Xi'an, the small population of the Kaifeng garrison probably found it more expedient to learn Chinese due to a greater need for communication with non-Manchus. In Kaifeng, the Manchus experienced language loss after only a single generation. In Xi'an, it took three to four generations.
Decline in the capital In 1726, Yongzheng was furious to find that the newly recruited guards joked around in Chinese and had abandoned their study of the Manchu language. In 1734, the emperor issued an edict ordering all members of the senior and imperial guards, and all guards of the palace gates, to speak only in Manchu and not Chinese. This was ineffective and the palace guards continued to speak in Chinese, even in the presence of the emperor, so another edict on the subject was issued a month later. Such proscriptions did not have a long lasting effect.
A few months after coming to power in 1735, the Qianlong Emperor issued directions for the garrisons at Hangzhou and Jiangning to prepare for training hunts in three years' time. He told the senior staff at Hangzhou that if the soldiers were not able to conduct themselves on horseback and speak and understand Manchu by then, they would be hearing from him. These efforts did not have the desired effect. In 1736, the Manchu vice-president of the Board of Rites, Sioi-yuwan-meng, wrote that Manchu bachelors had started favoring Chinese writing, and if nothing was done the Manchu language would be lost. Even though schools in Beijing taught Manchu, they also taught Chinese as well, and the institutionalization of the translation exams in 1723 also further encouraged proficiency in written Chinese, shifting the linguistic balance in favor of Chinese.
In 1750, the Qianlong Emperor complained that the members of the vanguard spoke Chinese. He criticized Manchus for translating Chinese novels and their attempts at writing Chinese poetry. In 1752, Qianlong jeered at a Manchu official, Nailangga, for presenting him with poetry during a hunt "just like a Chinese". The emperor dismissed Nailangga and publicized the case throughout the Eight Banners as an example of corruption by Han customs. In 1776, Qianlong was shocked to see a Manchu official, Guo'ermin, who did not understand what the emperor was telling him in Manchu, despite coming from the Manchu stronghold of Mukden.Yu Hsiao-jung, Manchu Rule over China and the Attrition of the Manchu Language Qianlong complained that eleven Manchu officials from the Manchu homeland used only Chinese in their reports. A local commander noted that written works in Manchu were riddled with mistakes.
It is likely that by the end of the 18th century, the Manchu imperial family had lost the fight to preserve the Manchu language. A Jesuit report in the 1720s stated that Manchu was still widely spoken in court whereas a report in the late 18th century declared that only Chinese could be heard in the princes' mansions in Beijing. One contemporary observer claimed that by 1800, practically everyone living in the major urban centers of Manchuria spoke Chinese while only Manchus who lived in tight knit communities continued to speak their native language. By the 19th century, even the imperial court had lost fluency in the language. The Jiaqing Emperor (reigned 1796–1820) complained that his officials were not proficient at understanding or writing Manchu.
Late stage decline