Erlitou (), also known as Yanshi Erlitou, is a Chinese archaeological site in the Yiluo Basin of Yanshi District, Luoyang, Henan. Discovered by survey teams led by archaeologist Xu Xusheng in 1959, it was initially identified as Bo, the first capital of the Shang dynasty. Some Chinese archaeologists later recognized it as the capital of the Xia—a dynasty of debated existence. A center of early Bronze Age China, Erlitou is the type site and largest settlement of the eponymous Erlitou culture. More limited occupation has been found from the earlier Yangshao and Longshan cultures and the later Erligang culture.
The site was the paramount settlement of a polity which spread across the Yiluo Basin and adjacent portions of the Mount Song region. The site lies south of what later is the Luo River; during its period of occupation, the settlement was on the river's northern bank. An initial Neolithic period of occupation, which saw settlements at the site, lasted from –2600 BCE. After centuries of vacancy, a settlement emerged around 1860 BCE, and later became the largest settlement in the Yiluo Basin, possibly attracting waves of migrants. At its peak, it reached a population of around 24,000 residents and an area of around . Centered around a palatial complex surrounded by rammed earth walls, the city became a center of bronze casting, pioneering piece-mold casting and the production of bronze ritual vessels. Turquoise and jade goods were also produced at the site, including ritual artifacts such as ceremonial weapons and turquoise-inlaid bronze plaques. Outside of the palatial complex, the settlement consists mostly of semi-subterranean houses intermixed with graves and tombs, mostly underlying houses, courtyards, and roads. There are no formal cemeteries, and tombs were placed sporadically and built over. The site contains the remains of the earliest known road network in China. A set of wagon tracks has been found on these roads.
In the later era, the site partially underlies three villages, which continue construction projects and development atop the site. Probing excavations are made by the Institute of Archaeology prior to development, while at times construction is done without archaeological involvement. The Chinese government declared Erlitou a national priority protected site in 1988 and a national archaeological park in 2022. In 2019, the Erlitou Site Museum of the Xia Capital opened near the site, exhibiting over 2,000 artifacts.
Geography
Erlitou (also known as Yanshi Erlitou) is the type site of the eponymous Erlitou culture (–1500 BCE) of ancient China—while a prior period of occupation dates to the earlier Yangshao and Longshan cultures (–2600 BCE) of the Neolithic period. The Erlitou culture spans more than five hundred sites across portions of Henan, Hebei, Shanxi, and Shaanxi; some of these have not been excavated, and have been identified with the culture through analysis of ceramic sherd finds. The Yiluo Basin and adjacent portions of Mount Song are the core territory of the culture, and possibly hosted a polity centered at Erlitou itself. The Yiluo Basin is an alluvial plain flanked by the Mangling hills to the north and mountain ranges on all other sides, forming natural defensive barriers. Combined with the somewhat fertile soils of the basin, this allowed for a higher population density.
During the time of the Erlitou culture, other settlements emerged in the basin. Shaochai, to the east of Erlitou, was the second largest settlement in the basin, and may have been a regional center which supported Erlitou through its position along the route to the Yellow River. Further east, sites such as may have been associated with the Erlitou culture or served as the centers of other neighboring polities. Chinese archaeologists generally divide the settlement sites of the Erlitou culture into four tiers: small villages, secondary centers, regional centers, and the Erlitou site itself in the highest tier. Erlitou is larger than other sites of the culture, at around ; in comparison, most settlements of the culture are less than , while particularly large sites such as Shaochai and Dashigu measure .
Most other Erlitou sites are located along the central reaches of the Yellow River, while outlying sites with some similarities with the Erlitou have been found along the Yangtze and Dan River. While it is not the earliest culture within China which made use of bronze, it is the first within the Central Plains, and is considered to mark the beginning of the Chinese Bronze Age. The Erlitou people were the creators of the first ritual bronzes in China through compound molds, an artistic tradition which would remain somewhat prominent within the political and religious culture of the Central Plains into the first millennium BCE.
Erlitou is located in Yanshi District, Luoyang, between three modern villages which partially or fully overlie the site; Erlitou to the north, Gedangtou to the southeast, and Sijiaolou to the south. Another village, Beixu, lies immediately adjacent to the northwestern end of the site. It is adjacent to the Luo River, upstream from its confluence with the Yi to form the Yiluo, which drains into the Yellow River to the north. During its period of occupation, Erlitou was on the northern bank of the Luo. The river moved to the north of the site during the Tang Dynasty (618–907 CE); portions of the site may have been destroyed during the river's change in course. Outside of the main settlement area, some scattered ruins associated with the site which have been found on the northern side of the Luo.
History and periodization During the last portion (–3000 BCE) of the Yangshao culture, three settlements existed at the site on its western, southern, and eastern extents. From about 3000–2600, during the period of the Longshan culture, these were succeeded by another settlement at the southern end of the site. After this, the site was abandoned for centuries, before it was reoccupied by the Erlitou culture, beginning a primary period of occupation lasting from –1545. The history of the site as part of the Erlitou culture (a period of roughly 360 years) has been divided into four phases, numbered I through IV.
During Phase I, the Erlitou site exceed and became the largest known settlement in the Yiluo Basin. Its growth was possibly fueled by migration from the surrounding region. The layout of the site during this period is uncertain, as the stratum was disrupted by occupants in later periods. The population of the settlement engaged in agriculture and artisanry. The production of bronze, ceramics and bone tools were local industries, each delegated to workshops in portions of the site. Knives are the only bronze objects from this phase, found alongside slag from bronze casting.
Erlitou expanded during Phase II, reaching its maximum size of around . The number of known burials and tools at the site tripled. While no houses or kilns have been discovered from Phase I, the remains of seven homes and one kiln are attested from Phase II. In the southeastern portion of the site, a palace complex of rammed earth buildings was constructed, enclosed by a set of four roads. Production of bone tools, bronze, and ceramics continued, while turquoise production may have begun.
During Phase III, craft production and population density increased, and the city reached its peak population. The palace structures built in Phase II were superseded by six new structures built in a more organized pattern. The new palace complex, larger in area, had fewer storage pits and wells, indicating that the area was possibly used by a group of elites. Production of agricultural tools in the city decreased relative to the production of crafts and arrowheads, the latter of which increased tenfold from Phase II. Development continued during Phase IV, which saw new buildings erected in the palatial complex. Bronze production increased in number and quantity during the phase.
As Erlitou reached its peak, fortified settlements of the Erligang culture began to emerge in the surrounding region. The city was eclipsed by the Yanshi Shang City, a fortified Erligang settlement about to the northeast. As estimates for Phase IV (–1520) overlap with the early subperiod (–1415) of the Erligang, the production of traditional Erlitou-style pottery may have continued at Erlitou after the beginning of Erligang pottery production at Yanshi. By the latter portion of the Erligang (ending around 1300), production of goods such as bronzes had ceased, and the settlement became a village around in area, centered on what was once the palace complex. The remains of houses, ash pits, and burials are attested from this period. After the end of the Erligang culture, the settlement was abandoned. During Erlitou's decline, the Zhengzhou Shang City, about to the east, also emerged as a regional center. Zhengzhou's metallurgical technology shows similarities to Erlitou, suggesting that craftsmen from Erlitou may have migrated to the new city as Erlitou declined.
Exact estimates for the dates of the Erlitou culture at the site vary. Radiocarbon dating measures taken during the 20th century indicate a date range of 1900–1500 BC for the Erlitou culture remains at the site, while accelerator mass spectrometry dates published for Erlitou culture remains at Xinzhai and Erlitou in 2007 gave a range of 1750–1530.
Layout
The site stretches around east-west and north-south, with an area of around ; including northern portions destroyed by the movement of the Luo River, the settlement may have totaled around in area. One study estimated that the site had between 18,000 and 30,000 residents, with a mean around 24,000.
Palatial complex The palatial complex, near the center of the site, was an enclosed rectangular area at least in area at its peak. It formed the original core of the city prior to expansion. The purpose of the palatial complex (), also referred to as a palace complex or palace city, remains a matter of academic contention. The purposes of the site may have changed over time. In 1991, historian Robert Thorp critiqued the complex's identification as a palace, theorizing that the structures were likely gathering or ritual spaces, as large audiences could congregate within their courtyards.
The complex was divided into two clusters of buildings on the western and eastern ends of the enclosure. To the west of the complex was a structure referred to by archaeologists as Foundation 1, an irregularly-shaped rammed-earth platform built during Phase III which measures , with a total area of around . A series of covered corridors enclosed this platform, creating a courtyard for a wooden building on the northern end. One 1979 study estimated that the foundation would have taken 200,000 person-days to construct, not including the management and the logistics required for such a large project.
The eastern portion of the complex contains the remains of structural foundations. Foundation 3 measures more than , and contains three courtyards. It was built during Phase II, predating the surrounding wall. A passageway containing a wooden drainage ditch separates it from another structure. During Phase III, two more structures were built atop these layers. One of these, Foundation 2, is a rectangular platform, measuring in area and in depth. On top of the platform laid an enclosed courtyard containing a wood and wattle-and-daub structure on the northern end. Another foundation was built on the site during Phase IV. Archaeologist Xu Hong proposed that the layout of the structures shares intense similarities with descriptions of Western Zhou architecture, and evidences continuity between Erlitou and Zhou ritual practice.