Rabih az-Zubayr bin Fadlallah (; 1840 – April 22, 1900) was a Sudanese warlord, adventurer, and slave trader who through conquests established a large and powerful empire in Central and West Africa in the late 19th century. A formidable military tactician and leader, Rabih supplanted the al-Kanemi dynasty of the Kanem–Bornu Empire and frustrated European colonial interests in the region for several years.
Rabih began his career as a soldier in the Egyptian army under Isma'il Pasha, eventually joining the raider and trader Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur in the Bahr el Ghazal. After Mansur's forces were suppressed by the Egyptians and British, Rabih took a small force westwards and gradually built up a larger army and considerable wealth through raiding. Over the course of about a decade, Rabih's army grew from 400 soldiers to 5,000 and he became strong enough to face and defeat well-established states in central Africa, such as the Sultanate of Bagirmi. In 1892–1894, Rabih conquered the Kanem–Bornu Empire and transformed it into a military dictatorship under the leadership of himself and his close military commanders. Rabih instituted a highly efficient but brutal and extortionate taxation system, and his army was one of the best-equipped and best-organised forces in sub-Saharan Africa. Rabih's rule was particularly damaging for the traditionally prosperous agriculture of Bornu and caused food production to run dangerously low.
Rabih's independent rule over Bornu ran counter to French interests in the region. In 1899–1900, France sent several expeditionary forces against Rabih in the so-called Rabih War. In 1900, a French army led by Amédée-François Lamy and Émile Gentil, supported by local allies, defeated and killed Rabih at the battle of Kousséri. Although the al-Kanemi dynasty was briefly restored under French colonial suzerainty, Rabih's death paved the way for the French colonisation of Chad. Rabih was one of the last major opponents of the French colonial empire and is a controversial figure in African history, remembered both for his brutal rule and for his resistance against European colonialism.
Early life and career
Life in Egyptian Sudan Rabih az-Zubayr's year of birth is typically placed 1840. Alternate dates sometimes given include c. 1835, c. 1842, and c. 1845. He was born in Halfaya al-Muluk, later a suburb of Khartoum. Rabih was of Nilotic, possibly Shanqella, origin and was enslaved as a child.
At the age of twenty, Rabih joined the Egyptian army and served for some years, mostly stationed in Cairo. Rabih was eventually drawn to the Bahr el Ghazal region, where he sought his fortune in the lucrative trade of ivory and slaves. In the Bahr el Ghazal, Rabih met Al-Zubayr Rahma Mansur, a raider and trader from the Ja'alin tribe, and was accepted into his service. Mansur rose to become a highly important figure in Egyptian Sudan. By 1874, Mansur was (under Egyptian suzerainty) the effective ruler of the Bahr el Ghazal, as well as large parts of what is today northern Congo and the Central African Republic. In 1874, Mansur conquered the Sultanate of Darfur, bringing it under Egyptian rule. Mansur quarreled with the ruler of Egypt, Isma'il Pasha, and was briefly detained in Egypt until his son Suleiman was recognised as his successor. Under Suleiman, wars of expansion to the west and south continued, in which Rabih participated as a leading commander. Rabih was particularly active in campaigns around the Ubangi River.
In 1878, Suleiman was forced into rebellion by the new governor of Sudan, Charles George Gordon. The rebellion was defeated with great difficulty by Romolo Gessi. After the fighting, Suleiman and most of his officers surrendered, but the Anglo–Egyptian authorities had them executed. Rabih and other officers who had not trusted the authorities enough to surrender escaped westwards, followed by about 400 soldiers.
Warlord
In 1879, the officers of Rabih's force, which composed a council known as the Zubat al-Kubar, elected Rabih as their emir. In 1879–1891, Rabih and his forces operated in lands now part of the Central African Republic and southern Chad. The first target raided by Rabih was the land of the Azande people. Rabih's forces secured funds by raiding various villages and tribes, and he increased the size of his army by offering prisoners their freedom and their lives if they joined him. By the early 1890s, Rabih had built up a considerable military force. His army numbered about 5,000 men and he fielded 44 pieces of light field artillery. The army formed the base of Rabih's power, especially his highly mobile cavalry and the imported rifles used by his soldiers. His forces were typically able to raid lands surrounding their bases of operations with relative ease. In 1882–1884, Rabih created many zeribas (fortified camps) throughout the lands under his control. New recruits and slave soldiers were taught to fight with firearms.
In 1887, Rabih accepted the authority of the new Mahdist State in Sudan. The Mahdists were building an Islamic reform movement in Sudan, and Rabih shared their anti-European sentiments. Rabih corresponded with the self-appointed Mahdist caliph, Abdallahi ibn Muhammad, but his officers did not wish to make the journey to Omdurman, the Mahdist capital. Rabih saw himself as a disciple of the Mahdi, Muhammad Ahmad, and began to build up his own military state in the Bahr el Ghazal after the establishment of the Mahdist State in Sudan. Certain elements of the Mahdist army, including its devotional exercises and uniform, were adopted by Rabih's forces.
When Belgian colonial forces arrived in the northern Congo, Rabih took his forces further north into the Chari River valley. Rabih intended to establish a base of operations in the Mandara Kingdom, from where he could trade both with North Africa and with settlements along the Benue River. In 1888–1889, Rabih campaigned in the south, attacking the Sara people and capturing a large number of slaves. In 1890, Rabih was in the Dar al Kuti region and approached the Sultanate of Bagirmi. He stayed at Dar al Kuti and Dar Runga until he was defeated by an army sent by the Wadai Sultanate. In 1891, Rabih's lieutenant Muhammad al-Sanussi massacred a French expedition led by Paul Crampel. Out of a desire to avoid provoking the French and reach the rich agricultural region around Bornu, Rabih's army traveled to Bagirmi, where they at first enjoyed friendly relations with its ruler, Gaourang II. Relations deteriorated and Rabih soon drove Gaourang from his capital at Massenya. In 1892, Rabih defeated a joint Bagirmi–Wadai army and then went on to conquer several Kotoko principalities without meeting any strong resistance. Rabih then reached the Mandara Kingdom, but the Mandarans were able to repel his attacks.
Conquest of Bornu
Preparations
In 1892, Gaourang II had requested military aid against Rabih from shehu Ashimi of the Kanem–Bornu Empire. Ashimi refused to send troops but imposed restrictions on the export of weapons and ammunition to Rabih. These restrictions were poorly enforced and much of Rabih's supplies continued to come from Bornu. After the defeat of Bagirmi, Rabih began to meddle in the affairs of the Kanem–Bornu Empire. He imposed demands on the sultan of Karnak Logone (also known simply as Logone), a vassal state of Bornu. Karnak Logone could scarcely refuse Rabih's demands. Ashimi responded by reprimanding the sultan, but took no further action to maintain authority over the territory. In 1892 or 1893, Rabih occupied Logone as a result of a coup. The populace were ejected and the strongly fortified town was turned into Rabih's base of operations.
Ashimi and his advisors adopted a policy of "waiting and seeing" in regard to Rabih's actions. Rabih exploited this in order to achieve several victories with little resistance in territories bordering Bornu proper, while he prepared for a campaign against Kukawa, the Bornuan capital. Ashimi may have hoped that Rabih would simply spare his empire. These hopes were partially sustained since Bornu harbored the exile Hayatu ibn Sa'id, a claimant to the Sokoto Caliphate and a son-in-law of Rabih. The nobility of Bornu were suspicious of Hayatu, but he was well-known to wish to take over the Sokoto Caliphate. The leading men of Bornu may thus have expected Rabih to help him in this, instead of attacking Bornu. Ashimi was unprepared for anything other than peace and made no effort to discover Rabih's intentions. Rabih meanwhile gathered intelligence on Kukawa through several sources, including local Kanuri who joined his army and Sudanese merchants in the city. Rabih became convinced that conquering Bornu would be relatively easy. Rabih achieved the support of Hayatu after they entered into an agreement that Hayatu would help conquering Bornu, and that Rabih would in turn help Hayatu take power in the Sokoto Caliphate. Rabih also had the support of the Baggara Arabs and their Kukawa-based trading community.
Invasion
In the summer of 1893, Rabih and his army entered Bornu proper and camped at Amja, on the frontier. From Amja, Rabih's forces could raid and harvest resources from the corn-rich surrounding Kala/Balge region. Ashimi was at first uncertain how to deal with the invasion but eventually decided to send an army under Momman Tahr to face Rabih. Tahr was an experienced general but it is unclear why Ashimi did not lead the army himself. Perhaps Ashimi did not realise the gravity of the situation or was hoping to eliminate Tahr as a potential rival. Rabih's invasion force was about 3,000 men strong, about half of whom were armed with muskets or rifles. Tahr's army was much larger, possibly numbering as many as 30,000 soldiers, most of whom were familiar with the area.
The two armies clashed at the battle of Amja, in May 1893, where Rabih positioned his right flank behind a swamp. The swamp may have been the result of recent heavy rains, and thus unknown to the Bornu army. Tahr sent much of his cavalry through the swamp, hoping to surprise Rabih's forces, but the horses got stuck and Rabih's riflemen were able to pick them off. Most of Tahr's forces soon fled the battle, and Tahr himself was captured and executed. Upon hearing of Tahr's defeat, Ashimi took to the field with his own army, led by himself and his nephew, Kyari. In about August, Ashimi and Kyari engaged Rabih's forces at the battle of Lekarawa. Rabih was outnumbered again but once more defeated the Bornuans. Ashimi and Kyari fled back to Kukawa, where the populace expected the shehu to prepare the city's defenses and attempt to fend off Rabih's attack. Ashimi and his closest advisors instead gathered their family and belongings and fled in the night, leaving the capital undefended.
Upon reaching Kukawa, Rabih showed little mercy, ruthlessly pillaging and laying waste to the city. About 3,000 people were killed and another 4,000 were taken captive while Rabih's forces secured large amounts of plunder, including weapons, cattle, sheep, horses, camels, ammunition, cloth, robes, ivory, and 70,000 Maria Theresa thalers. Those who had cooperated with Rabih, such as Kukawa's Sudanese traders, were left unharmed. Rabih spent some time in Kukawa but decided to transfer his capital to Dikwa instead, probably on account of its better communications and water supply. The beginning of Rabih's rule over Bornu would later be dated to 2 October, perhaps corresponding to his occupation of Kukawa or Dikwa.