Ancient literature comprises religious and scientific documents, tales, poetry and plays, royal edicts and declarations, and other forms of writing that were recorded on a variety of media, including stone, clay tablets, papyri, palm leaves, and metal.
Before the spread of writing, oral literature did not always survive well, but some texts and fragments have persisted.
An unknown number of written works have not survived the ravages of time and are therefore lost.
Incomplete list of ancient texts
Bronze Age
Early Bronze Age 3rd millennium BC (approximate dates shown). The earliest written literature dates from about 2600 BC (classical Sumerian). Certain literary texts are difficult to date, such as the Egyptian Book of the Dead, which was recorded in the Papyrus of Ani around 1240 BC, but other versions of the book probably date from about the 18th century BC. 2600 BC: Sumerian texts from Abu Salabikh, including the Instructions of Shuruppak and the Kesh temple hymnTwo fragmentary Akkadian versions survive, from the 15th century BCE and from the end of the second millennium BCE: "Its great antiquity and popularity is evidenced by the large number of manuscripts of it that have survived" (Beaulieu in Clifford 2007:4). 2600 BC: Egyptian The Life of Metjen from SaqqaraToby A. H. Wilkinson: Early Dynastic Egypt. Routledge, London/New York 2001, . 2500 BC: Egyptian Diary of Merer and Instruction of Hardjedef 2500 BC: Sumerian Hymn to Enlil, Enlil and Ninlil, and Debate between sheep and grain 2400 BC: Sumerian Code of Urukagina 2400 BC – 2300 BC: Egyptian Pyramid Texts, including the Cannibal Hymn 2375 BC: Egyptian The Maxims of Ptahhotep 2283 BC: Egyptian Palermo Stone 2270 BC: Sumerian Enheduanna's Hymns 2250 BC: Egyptian Autobiography of Weni and South Saqqara Stone 2250 BC – 2000 BC: Earliest Sumerian stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh 2200 BC: Egyptian Autobiography of Harkhuf 2125 BC: Sumerian Building of Ningirsu's Temple 2100 BC: Sumerian Curse of Agade, Debate between bird and fish, Debate between the hoe and the plough, Debate between tree and reed, Debate between silver and copper, Inanna's Descent into the Underworld, Self-praise of Shulgi, Code of Ur-Nammu, and Song of the hoe 2084 BC: Sumerian Sumerian King List 2050 BC: Egyptian The Satire of the Trades
Middle Bronze Age 2000 BC to 1601 BC (approximate dates shown) 2000 BC: Egyptian Coffin Texts and Teaching for King Merykara 2000 BC: Sumerian Lament for Ur, Lament for Sumer and Ur, Enmerkar and the Lord of Aratta, and Debate between Winter and Summer 2000 BC – 1900 BC: Egyptian Tale of the Shipwrecked Sailor, Prophecy of Neferti, and the first of the Harper's Songs 1950 BC: Akkadian Laws of Eshnunna and Hymn to Ištar 1950 BC: Egyptian Instructions of Amenemhat, the Akhmim wooden tablets, and the Heqanakht papyri 1940 BC: Sumerian Correspondence of the Kings of Ur 1900 BC: Akkadian Legend of Etana, Summa izbu, Šumma ālu, Namburbi, and Iškar Zaqīqu 1900 BC: Sumerian Code of Lipit-Ishtar and The Legend of Adapa 1900 BC: Egyptian Instructions of KagemniSimpson (1972), p. 177; Parkinson (2002), pp. 46, 50, 313.Parkinson (2002), pp. 46, 50, 313. 1859 BC – 1840 BC: Egyptian Dispute between a man and his Ba 1859 BC – 1813 BC: Egyptian Loyalist Teaching 1850 BC: Egyptian The Eloquent Peasant 1850 BC: Akkadian Kultepe texts, Bārûtu, the Counsels of Wisdom, the Cuthean Legend of Naram-Sin, and the Labbu Myth 1800 BC: Akkadian earliest complete version of the Epic of Gilgamesh 1800 BC: Egyptian Berlin Papyrus 6619, Moscow Mathematical Papyrus, and Story of Sinuhe (in Hieratic) 1780 BC: Akkadian Mari letters, including the Epic of Zimri-Lim 1754 BC: Akkadian Code of Hammurabi stele 1750 BC: Akkadian Agushaya Hymn Late 18th century BC: Hittite Anitta text 1700 BC: Akkadian Atra-HasisBottéro, Jean. 2000. Ancestor of the West: Writing, Reasoning, and Religion in Mesopotamia, Elam, and Greece. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. . p. 40. 1700 BC: Egyptian Westcar Papyrus 1650 BC: Egyptian Ipuwer Papyrus 1650 BC: Sumerian Dialogue between a Man and His God
Late Bronze Age 1600 BC to 1201 BC (approximate dates shown) 1600 BC: Hittite Code of the Nesilim 1600 BC: Akkadian Ḫulbazizi, Eridu Genesis and Enuma Anu Enlil 1600 BC: Egyptian Edwin Smith Papyrus 1550 BC: Egyptian Book of the Dead, Instruction of Any, King Neferkare and General Sasenet, the Tale of the Doomed Prince, the Litany of Re, Rhind Mathematical Papyrus, and the Ebers Papyrus 1550 BC: Akkadian Bullussa-rabi's Hymn to Gula 1550 BC: Babylonian Venus tablet of Ammisaduqa 1500 BC: Akkadian Poor Man of Nippur 1500 BC: Hittite military oath 1500 BC – 1300 BC: Ugaritic Baal Cycle 1500 BC – 1200 BC: Ugaritic Legend of Keret 1500 BC – 1000 BC: Sanskrit Rig Veda 1500 BC: Akkadian Dynasty of Dunnum "Perhaps it was brought east with the Amorites of the First Dynasty of Babylon." and Chronicle of Early Kings 1450 BC: Egyptian The Taking of Joppa 1450 BC: Akkadian Assyrian law (E-book edition) 1425 BC: Egyptian Amduat 1400 BC: Akkadian Marriage of Nergal and Ereshkigal, Autobiography of Kurigalzu, and Amarna letters Mid 14th century BC: Egyptian Great Hymn to the Aten 1350 BC: Ugaritic Tale of Aqhat 1350 BC: Akkadian Šurpu 1300 BC: Egyptian Instruction of Amenemope, Papyrus Anastasi I 1300 BC: Akkadian Ludlul bēl nēmeqi, the Dream of Kurigalzu, The Hemerology for Nazi-Maruttaš, Iqqur Ipuš, and Summa izbu 1274 BC: Akkadian Adad-nārāri Epic 1240 BC: Egyptian Papyrus of Ani, Book of the Dead 1200 BC – 900 BC: Akkadian version and younger stories in the Epic of Gilgamesh 1200 BC: Akkadian Tukulti-Ninurta Epic 1200 BC: Egyptian Tale of Two BrothersMiriam Lichtheim, Ancient Egyptian Literature, vol.2, 1980, p.203
Iron Age
Iron Age texts predating Classical Antiquity: 12th to 8th centuries BC 1200 BC: The Yajurveda, Samaveda, and Atharvaveda 1100 BC: Akkadian Šumma sinništu qaqqada rabāt 1050 BC: Egyptian Story of Wenamun 1050 BC: Akkadian Sakikkū (SA.GIG) "Diagnostic Omens" by Esagil-kin-apli. 1050 BC: Akkadian Alamdimmû 1050 BC: The Babylonian Theodicy of Šaggil-kīnam-ubbib. 1010 BC: Akkadian Royal Inscription of Simbar-Šipak 1000 BC: Chinese Classic of Poetry (Shījīng) 1000 BC: Akkadian Dialogue of Pessimism, Chronicle P, Maglû, Bīt rimki, Zu-buru-dabbeda, Advice to a Prince, Asakkū marsūtu, the Great Prayer to Šamaš, the MUL.APIN, the Sag-gig-ga-meš, and Šēp lemutti 900 BC: Akkadian Epic of Erra 900 BC: Vedic Sanskrit Aranyaka
Classical antiquity
9th century BC Chinese: Classic of Changes (I Ching) Akkadian: Ninurta-Pāqidāt's Dog Bite Enûma Eliš
8th century BC Greek: Trojan War cycle, including the Iliad and the Odyssey Sanskrit: Brahmanas Brihadaranyaka Upanishad Isha Upanishad Chandogya Upanishad Aitareya Upanishad Taittiriya Upanishad Akkadian: Chronicle of the Market Prices Hymn to Ninurta as Savior Mîs-pî
7th century BC Vedic Sanskrit: Shulba Sutra (containing geometry related to fire-altar construction) Manava Sulbasutra Baudhayana sutra Shatapatha Brahmana – Commentary on the Vedas Nirukta (technical treatise on etymology, lexical category and the semantics of Sanskrit words) Kausitaka Upanishad Greek: Hesiod: Theogony and Works and Days Archilochus Alcman Semonides of Amorgos Solon Mimnermus Stesichorus Paleo-Hebrew alphabet: Ketef Hinnom amulets, the oldest found Biblical text (amulets with the Priestly Blessing, which are recorded in the Book of Numbers) Chinese: Classic of Documents (Shūjīng) (authentic portions) Akkadian: Dynastic Chronicle Eclectic Chronicle Marduk Prophecy
6th century BC Sanskrit: Sushruta: Sushruta Samhita (Book on Surgery and Medicine) Kapila: Samkhya-sutra, Kapilanyayabhasa, Kapila Gita, Dṛṣṭantara Yoga Kanada: Vaiśeṣika Sūtra (Book on Atomism) Kashyapa Samhhita (Book on Medicine) Pratishakhyas Greek: Sappho Ibycus Alcaeus of Mytilene Aesop's Fables Akkadian: The Autobiography of Adad-guppi Abnu šikinšu Nabonidus Chronicle Verse Account of Nabonidus Cyrus Cylinder
5th century BC Sanskrit: Pāṇini:Aṣṭādhyāyī Kenopanishad Apastamba Dharmasutra, Apastambha Smriti Avestan: Yasht Chinese: Spring and Autumn Annals (Chūnqiū) (722–481 BC, chronicles of the state of Lu) Confucius: Analects (Lúnyǔ) Classic of Rites (Lǐjì) Commentaries of Zuo (Zuǒ Zhuàn) Mozi: Mozi Sun Tzu: The Art of War (Sūnzǐ Bīngfǎ) Guoyu: Discourses of the States Yanzi Chunqiu: Annals of Master Yan Wenzi: Book of Master Wen Greek: Pindar: odes Herodotus: The Histories of Herodotus Thucydides: History of the Peloponnesian War Aeschylus: The Suppliants, The Persians, Seven Against Thebes, Oresteia Sophocles: Oedipus Rex, Oedipus at Colonus, Antigone, Electra and other plays Euripides: Alcestis, Medea, Heracleidae, Hippolytus, Andromache, Hecuba, The Suppliants, Electra, Heracles, Trojan Women, Iphigeneia in Tauris, Ion, Helen, Phoenician Women, Orestes, Bacchae, Iphigeneia at Aulis, Cyclops, Rhesus Aristophanes: The Acharnians, The Knights, The Clouds, The Wasps, Peace, The Birds, Lysistrata, Thesmophoriazusae, The Frogs, Ecclesiazousae, Plutus Hebrew: date of the extant text of the Torah
4th century BC Sanskrit: Katha Upanishad Prashnopanishad Mundaka Upanishad Māṇḍūkya Upanishad Bhadrabahu: Kalpa Sūtra Chanakya: Arthashastra, Chanakya Neeti Salihotra: Shalihotra Samhita (treatise on veterinary medicine) Vyasa: Mahabharata, Puranas, Brahma Sutras Jaimini: Mimamsa Sutras, Jaimini Sutras, Ashvamedhika Parva Valmiki: Ramayana Bhāsa: Svapnavasavadattam, Pancarātra, Pratijna Yaugandharayaanam, Pratimanātaka, Abhishekanātaka, Bālacharita, Karnabhāram, Dūtaghaṭotkaca, Chārudatta, Madhyamavyayoga and Urubhanga. Hebrew: Book of Job, beginning of Hebrew wisdom literature Chinese: Laozi (or Lao Tzu): Tao Te Ching Zhuangzi: Zhuangzi Mencius: Mencius (Mèngzǐ) Shanhai Jing: Classic of Mountains and Seas Li Sao: Encountering Sorrow Nine Songs (Jiǔ Gē) Heavenly Questions (Tiān Wèn) Nine Pieces (Jiǔ Zhāng) Yuan You (Far-off Journey) Shang Yang: Book of Lord Shang (Shāng jūn shū) Shizi: Book of Master Shi Guiguzi: Sage of Ghost Valley Huangdi Sijing: Yellow Emperor's Four Classics Tale of King Mu, Son of Heaven (Mù Tiānzǐ Zhuàn) Wuzi: Wu Qi's Art of War Sun Bin's Art of War (Sūn Bìn Bīngfǎ) The Methods of the Sima (Sīmǎ Fǎ) Li Kui: Book of Law Persian: DNa inscription Greek: Xenophon: Anabasis, Cyropaedia, Oeconomicus, Memorabilia, Hellenica Aristotle: Nicomachean Ethics, Metaphysics, Organon, Physics, Historia Animalium, De Partibus Animalium, De Motu Animalium, De Mundo, De Caelo, Poetics, Politics, Magna Moralia, Eudemian Ethics Plato: Euthyphro, Apology, Crito, Theaetetus, Parmenides, Symposium, Phaedrus, Protagoras, Gorgias, Meno, Republic, Timaeus, Critias, Laws, Menexenus, Phaedo, Lysis, Alcibiades I, Alcibiades II, Hippias minor, Epinomis, Minos, Hipparchus, Ion Euclid: Elements Menander: Dyskolos Theophrastus: Enquiry into Plants Egyptian: Famine Stela
3rd century BC Avestan: Avesta Chinese: Lüshi Chunqiu: Master Lü's Spring and Autumn Annals Yi Zhoushu: Lost Book of Zhou Erya: Ancient dictionary Hanfeizi: Book of Master Han Fei Xunzi: Book of Master Xun Wei Liaozi: Book of Master Wei Liao Gongsun Longzi: Book of Master Gongsun Long Cangjiepian: Cang Jie's Chapter Lament for Ying (Āi Yǐng) Bu Ju: Divination Yu Fu: Fisherman Nine Changes (Jiǔ Biàn) Zhao Hun: Summons of the Soul Da Zhao: The Great Summons Sorrow for Troth Betrayed (Xī Shì) Etruscan: Liber Linteus Zagrabiensis (Linen Book of Zagreb) Sanskrit: Pingala: Chandaḥśāstra Moggaliputta-Tissa: Kathavatthu Kātyāyana: Vārttikakāra, Śulbasūtras Vishnu Sharma: Panchatantra Vedanga Jyotisha Bharata Muni: Natya Shastra (A theoretical treatise on classical Indian dance and drama)