The emergence of metallurgy in pre-Columbian Mesoamerica occurred relatively late in the region's history, with distinctive works of metal apparent in West Mexico by roughly 800 CE, and perhaps as early as 600 CE.see Hosler 1988, 1995. Metallurgical techniques likely diffused northward from regions in Central or South America via maritime trade routes; recipients of these metallurgical technologies apparently exploited a wide range of material, including alloys of copper-silver, copper-arsenic, copper-tin and copper-arsenic-tin.Hosler 1988, Pendergast 1962.

Metal items crafted throughout Mesoamerica may be broken into three classes: utilitarian objects, objects used for individual ornamentation, and ceremonial/ritual objects.Pendergast 1962. The latter two categories comprise the bulk of distinctly Mesoamerican artifacts, with metals playing a particularly important role in the sacred and symbolic cultural realms.

Possible location of Mesoamerican metallurgy West Mexico The earliest and most diverse finds of metal artifacts are from West Mexico stretching in a belt along the Pacific coast from Guerrero to Nayarit. This indicates that this region was a regional nucleus of metallurgy,Pendergast 1962. from which elements of technique, form and style could have diffused throughout Mesoamerica.

Southern Mexico The Mixtec civilization have long been thought to be the dominant goldsmiths of post-classic Mesoamerica. A large number of gold artifacts found in central and southern Mexico have been attributed to the Mixtec.

Central Mexico There is recent evidence that suggests that the Aztec civilization was a distinct locus of metallurgy, though gold objects from this area had previously been attributed to the Mixtec.

Huastec area Some locally produced artifacts have been found in late-postclassic sites in the La Huasteca region.Dorothy Hosler, Guy Stresser-Pean. 1992. "The Huastec Region: a Second Locus for the Production of Bronze Alloys in Ancient Mesoamerica". Science. 28 August 1992 : 1215–1220

Developments in West Mexican metallurgy Phase 1: AD 600–1200/1300 West Mexican smiths worked primarily in copper during the initial period, with some low-arsenic alloys, as well as occasional employment of silver and gold. Lost-wax cast bells were introduced from lower Central America and Colombia during this phase, along with several classes of cold-worked ornaments and hand tools, such as needles and tweezers. The prototypes for these small, often utilitarian items appear rooted in southern Ecuador and northern Peru.Hosler 1995. Small copper rings, generally found in burial contexts, are also common to Ecuador and Western Mexico and are abundant during this phase.

Excavated assemblages from the initial phase indicate that lost-wax cast bells also occupied a substantial portion of West Mexican artisans' efforts. Unlike similar bells recovered from coastal Ecuador, West Mexican bells were cast, rather than worked, metal. Typically composed of a smooth, suspended metal shell encasing an interior clapper, the West Mexican bells were generally fashioned from copper alloys and bore particular resemblance to bells made in Colombia, Panama and Costa Rica.Hosler 1988.

Phase 2: 1200/1300–1521

Metal smiths demonstrated increasing technical sophistication, producing both utilitarian and status-linked items. During the latter phase, Michoacán emerged as a technological hub, with metal artifacts also appearing at the adjacent zones of Guerrero and Jalisco.

Alloys became more prevalent during the second phase, as metal workers experimented with color, strength and fluidity. Formerly utilitarian assemblages transformed, with new focus placed upon metallic status objects. Further, the appearance of a copper-tin bronze alloy suggests contact between West Mexico and Peru during this period. However, many of the alloys/alloy concentrations used in West Mexico appear to reflect local innovation.

Scholars such as Dorothy Hosler suggest that ancient Mesoamericans were unique in their attention to the peculiar aesthetic properties of metals, such as the brilliant sounds and colors evoked through the movement of metallic objects.Holser 1988, 1995. The rather late emergence of metallurgy in ancient Mesoamerica likely contributed to its novelty and subsequent role as a marker of elite status.

It has been suggested that Mesoamerican metal smiths produced particular alloys with the chief aim of exploiting the alloys’ emergent color properties, particularly the vivid gold tones produced through infusion of tin, and the silver shades that develop at high arsenic concentrations. Notably, certain artifacts from West Mexico contain tin or arsenic at concentrations as high as 23 weight percent, while concentrations of alloying elements at roughly 2 to 5 weight percent are typically adequate for augmented strength and mechanical utility.Hosler 1988, 1995.

Metal smiths in pre-Columbian West Mexico particularly exploited the brilliance inherent in metallic sound and sheen, suggesting that their creations tended to occupy a sacred and symbolic space.Hosler 1995. Metallic colors, gold and silver, might have been connected with solar and lunar deities while bell sounds have been associated with fertility rituals and protection in warfare.Hosler 1995.

Archaeological sites yielding metal artifacts

Central Mexico (AD 900–1450) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; Objects of personal adornment' Atotonilco, Hidalgo Calixtlahuaca, Mexico Tenayuca, Mexico Tenochitlan, Distrito Federal (D.F.) Teotihuacan, Mexico Texcoco, Mexico

West Mexico (AD 800/900–1450) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment Amapa, Nayarit Apatzingán, Michoacán Atoyac, Jalisco Cojumatlán, Michoacán Coyuca de Catalán, Guerrero Culiacán, Sinaloa Jiquilpan, Michoacán Peñitas, Nayarit Río Balsas, Guerrero Tancitaro, Michoacán Telpalcátepec, Michoacán Tepic, Nayarit Texmelincan, Guerrero Tuxcacuesco, Jalisco Tzintzuntzan, Michoacán Yestla, Guerrero Zacpu, Michoacán Zamora, Michoacán

Eastern Mexico (AD 900–1500) Objects of personal adornment and ceremonial objects Cerro Montoso, Veracruz Chachalacas, Veracruz El Tajin, Veracruz Isla de Sacrificios, Veracruz Pánuco, Veracruz Tampico, Veracruz

Oaxaca area (AD 900–1500) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment Coatlán, Oaxaca Coixtlahuaca, Oaxaca Ejutla, Oaxaca Guiengola, Oaxaca Huajuapan, Oaxaca Huitzo, Oaxaca Juquila, Oaxaca Mitla, Oaxaca Monte Albán Oaxaca Sola de Vega, Oaxaca Tehuantepec, Oaxaca Teotitlán del Camino, Oaxaca Teotitlán del Valle, Oaxaca Tlacolula, Oaxaca Tlaxiaco, Oaxaca Tututepec, Oaxaca Xaaga, Oaxaca Yanhuitlán, Oaxaca Zachila, Oaxaca

Southern Maya Area (AD 450(?)–1500) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment Chipal, Guatemala Chutixtiox, Guatemala Copán, Honduras Kaminaljuyú, Guatemala Motagua River valley, Guatemala Los Naranjos, Honduras Nebaj, Guatemala Quemistlá "Bell Caves", Honduras Quiriguá, Guatemala San Augustín Acasaguastlán, Guatemala Tajumulco, Guatemala Tazumal, El Salvador Zacualpa, Guatemala Zaculeu, Guatemala

Central Maya Area (AD 900–1500) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment Chiapa de Corzo, Chiapas El Paredón, Chiapas Polol, Guatemala Santa Rita Corozal, Belize Nojpetén, Guatemala Tikal, Guatemala Yaxhá, Guatemala Palenque, Chiapas Wild Cane Cay, Belize Lamanai, Belize

Northern Maya Area (1000–1450) Utilitarian and ceremonial objects; objects of personal adornment Chichén Itzá, Yucatán Dzantún C’hen, Yucatán Mayapán, Yucatán

Northern Mexico (1000–1450) Utilitarian objects; objects of personal adornment Casas Grandes, Chihuahua Chalchihuites, Zacatecas Hervideros, Durango La Quemada, Zacatecas Navocoyán, Durango Chihuahua, Chihuahua Schroeder site, Durango Venis Meicis, San Luis Potosí Zape, Durango Babicora, Chihuahua Rancho San Miguiel, Chihuahua Santa Maria R., Chihuahua

See also Tumbaga Traditional copper work in Mexico Axe-monies

Notes

References Hosler, Dorothy (1988). "Ancient West Mexican Metallurgy: South and Central American Origins and West Mexican Transformations". American Anthropologist 90: 832–855. Hosler Dorothy (1994) The Sounds and Colors of Power: The sacred metallurgical technology technology of Ancient West Mexico. MIT Press, Cambridge MA. Hosler, Dorothy (1995). "Sound, color and meaning in the metallurgy of Ancient West Mexico". World Archaeology 27: 100–115. Pendergast, David M. (1962). "Metal Artifacts in Prehispanic Mesoamerica". American Antiquity 27: 520–545. Simmons, Scott E., David M. Pendergast and Elizabeth Graham (2009). "Maya Metals: The Context and Significance of Copper Artifacts in Postclassic and Early Historic Lamanai, Belize". Journal of Field Archaeology 34(1):57–75.

External links "The Maya Archaeometallurgy Project" at Lamanai, Belize "The Mechanics of the Art World", Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820.