The Summa Theologiae or Summa Theologica (), often referred to simply as the Summa, is the best-known work of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), a scholastic theologian and Doctor of the Church. It is a compendium of all of the main theological teachings of the Catholic Church. Presenting the reasoning for almost all points of Christian theology in the West, topics of the Summa follow the following cycle: God; Creation, Man; Man's purpose; Christ; the Sacraments; and back to God.
Although unfinished, it is "one of the classics of the history of philosophy and one of the most influential works of Western literature".. It remains Aquinas's "most perfect work, the fruit of his mature years, in which the thought of his whole life is condensed".
The Summa is a more structured and expanded version of Aquinas's earlier Summa contra Gentiles, though the two were written for different purposes. Throughout the Summa, Aquinas aims to reconcile Aristotelian philosophy with Catholic theology. Although he broadly cites the Bible, patristic, scholastic, Islamic, Jewish, and pre-Christian Greek and Roman sources, his most referenced non-scriptural authors are Aristotle (who he calls "the philosopher") and Augustine.
The Summa Theologiae was one of the main intellectual inspirations for Thomistic philosophy. It also had such a great influence on Dante Alighieri's Divine Comedy that Dante's epic poem has been called "the Summa in verse".Fordham University. Oct. 1921–June 1922. The Fordham Monthly 40:76. The Summa Theologiae continues to be a major reference in the Western and Eastern Catholic Churches, and the mainline Protestant denominations (Anglicanism, Lutheranism, Methodism, and Reformed Christianity) for those seeking ordination to the diaconate or priesthood, for professed male or female religious life, or for laypersons studying philosophy and theology at the collegiate level.
History It was while teaching at the Santa Sabina studium provinciale—the forerunner of the Santa Maria sopra Minerva studium generale and College of Saint Thomas, which in the 20th century would become the Pontifical University of Saint Thomas Aquinas, Angelicum—that Aquinas began to compose the Summa. He completed the Prima Pars ('first part') in its entirety and circulated it in Italy before departing to take up his second regency as professor at the University of Paris (1269–1272).Torrell, Jean-Pierre. 1996. Saint Thomas Aquinas, vol 1, The Person and His Work, translated by Robert Royal. Catholic University. 146 ff.
Pedagogy Aquinas conceived the Summa specifically as a work suited to beginning students:
Structure
The Summa is structured into:
3 Parts ("Pt."), subdivided into: 614 Questions (; or "QQ"), subdivided into: 3,125 Articles ("Art.").
Questions are specific topics of discussion, whereas their corresponding Articles are further-specified facets of the parent question. For example, Part I, Question 2 ("The Existence of God") is divided into three articles: (1) "Whether the existence of God is self-evident?"; (2) "Whether it can be demonstrated that God exists?"; and (3) "Whether God exists?" Additionally, questions on a broader theme are grouped into Treatises, though the category of treatise is reported differently, depending on the source.
The Summa three parts have a few other major subdivisions.
First Part (; includes 119 QQ, 584 Articles): The existence and nature of God; the creation of the world; angels; and the nature of man. Second Part (includes 303 QQ, 1536 Articles), subdivided into two sub-parts:
First part of the Second Part ( or Part I-II; includes 114 QQ, 619 Articles): General principles of morality (including a theory of law). Second part of the Second Part ( or Part II-II; includes 189 QQ, 917 Articles): Morality in particular, including individual virtues and vices. Third Part (Tertia Pars; includes 90 QQ, 549 Articles): The person and work of Christ, who is the way of man to God; and the sacraments. Aquinas left this part unfinished.McInerny, Ralph. 1990. A First Glance at St. Thomas Aquinas. Notre Dame Press: Indiana. . p. 197.
Supplement (99 QQ, 446 Articles): The third part proper is attended by a posthumous supplement which concludes the third part and the Summa, treating of Christian eschatology, or "the last things". Appendix I (includes 2 QQ, 8 Articles) and Appendix II (includes 1 Q, 2 Articles): Two very small appendices which discuss the subject of purgatory.
Article format The method of exposition undertaken in the articles of the Summa is derived from Averroes, to whom Aquinas refers respectfully as "the Commentator"."St. Thomas Aquinas used the "Grand Commentary" of Averroes as his model, being, apparently, the first Scholastic to adopt that style of exposition..."
Turner, William. 1907. "Averroes." In The Catholic Encyclopedia 2. New York: Robert Appleton Company. Retrieved 2009-11-06. The standard format for articles of the Summa is as follows:
A series of objections () to the yet-to-be-stated conclusion are given. This conclusion can mostly (but not without exception) be extracted by setting the introduction to the first objection into the negative. A short counter-statement is given, beginning with the phrase ('on the contrary...'). This statement almost always references authoritative literature, such as the Bible, Aristotle, or the Church Fathers.Kreeft, Peter. 1990. Summa of the Summa. Ignatius Press. pp. 17–18. . The actual argument is made, beginning with the phrase ('I answer that...'). This is generally a clarification of the issue. Individual replies to the preceding objections or the counter-statement are given, if necessary. These replies range from one sentence to several paragraphs in length.
Example Consider the example of Part III, Question 40 ("Of Christ's Manner of Life"),Summa Theologica, Pt. III, Q. 40. Retrieved 23 May 2020. Article 3 ("Whether Christ should have led a life of poverty in this world?"):Summa Theologica, Pt. III, Q. 40, Art. 3. Retrieved 23 May 2020.
First, a series of objections to the conclusion are provided, followed by the extracted conclusion ('therefore'): Objection 1: "Christ should have embraced the most eligible form of life...which is a mean between riches and poverty.... Therefore Christ should have led a life, not of poverty, but of moderation." Objection 2: "Christ conformed His manner of life to those among whom He lived, in the matter of food and raiment. Therefore, it seems that He should have observed the ordinary manner of life as to riches and poverty, and have avoided extreme poverty." Objection 3: "Christ specially invited men to imitate His example of humility.... But humility is most commendable in the rich.... Therefore it seems that Christ should not have chosen a life of poverty." A counter-statement is given by referring to Matthew 8:20 and Matthew 17:26. The actual argument is made: "it was fitting for Christ to lead a life of poverty in this world" for four distinct reasons. The article then expounds on these reasons in detail. Aquinas' reply to the above objection is that "those who wish to live virtuously need to avoid abundance of riches and beggary...but voluntary poverty is not open to this danger: and such was the poverty chosen by Christ."
Structure of Part II Part II of the Summa is divided into two parts (Prima Secundae and Secunda Secundae, cited respectively as "1a2æ" and "2a2æ"). The first part comprises 114 questions, while the second part comprises 189. The two parts of the second part are usually presented as containing several "treatises". The contents are as follows:1911. "Thomas Aquinas." In The New Schaff-Herzog Encyclopedia of Religious Knowledge 11. pp. 422–27.
Part II-I
Treatise on the last end (qq. 1–5):Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 1–5. Treatise on human acts (qq. 6–21)Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 1–21. The will in general (qq. 6–7) The Will (qq. 8–17) Good and evil (qq. 8–21) Treatise on passions (qq. 22–48)Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 22–48. Passions in general (qq. 22–25) Love and hatred (qq. 26–29) Concupiscence and delight (qq. 30–34) Pain and sorrow (qq. 35–39) Fear and daring (qq. 40–45) Anger (qq. 46–48) Treatise on habits (qq. 49–70)Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 49–70. Habits in general; their causes and effects (qq. 49–54) Virtues; intellectual and moral virtues (qq. 55–60) Virtues; cardinal and theological virtues (qq. 61–67) The gifts, beatitudes and blessings of the Holy Ghost (qq. 68–70) Treatise on vice and sin (qq. 71–89)Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 71–89. Vice and sin in themselves; the comparison of sins (qq. 71–74) The general causes of sin; the internal causes of sin (qq. 75–78) The external causes of sin, such as the devil and man himself (qq. 79–84) The corruption of nature the stain of sin; punishment for venial and mortal sin (qq. 85–89) Treatise on law (qq. 90–108)Summa Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 90–108. The essence of law; the various kinds of law; its effects (qq. 90–92) Eternal law, natural law, human law (qq. 93–97) The old law; ceremonial and judicial precepts (qq. 98–105) The law of the Gospel or new law (qq. 106–108) Treatise on grace (qq. 109–114): its necessity, essence, cause and effectsSumma Theologica, Pt. II-I, Q. 109–114.
Part II-II
Treatise on the theological virtues (qq. 1–46) Treatise on the cardinal virtues (qq. 47–170) Treatise on prudence (qq. 47–56) Treatise on justice (qq. 57–122) Treatise on fortitude and temperance (qq. 123–170) Treatise on gratuitous graces (qq. 171–182) Treatise on the states of life (qq. 183–189)
References within the Summa
The Summa makes many references to certain thinkers held in great respect in Aquinas's time. The arguments from authority, or sed contra arguments, are almost entirely based on citations from these authors. Some were called by special names: The Apostle – Paul the Apostle: He wrote the majority of the New Testament canon after his conversion, earning him the title of The Apostle in Aquinas's Summa even though Paul was not among the original twelve followers of Jesus. The Philosopher – Aristotle: He was considered the most astute philosopher, the one who had expressed the most truth up to that time. The main aim of the Scholastic theologians was to use his precise technical terms and logical system to investigate theology. The Commentator – Averroes (Ibn Rushd): He was among the foremost commentators on Aristotle's works in Arabic, and his commentaries were often translated into Latin (along with Aristotle's text). The Master – Peter Lombard: Writer of the dominant theological text for the time: the Sentences (commentaries on the writings of the Doctors of the Church). The Jurist or The Legal Expert (iurisperitus) – Ulpian (a Roman jurist): the most-quoted contributor to the Pandects. Tully – Marcus Tullius Cicero: famed Roman statesman and orator who was also responsible for bringing significant swathes of Greek philosophy to Latin-speaking audiences, though generally through summation and commentary in his own work rather than by translation. Dionysius – Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite: Aquinas refers to the works of Dionysius, whom scholars of the time thought to be the person mentioned in Acts 17:34 (a disciple of St. Paul). These were most likely written in Syria during the 6th century by a writer who attributed his book to Dionysius (hence the addition of the prefix "pseudo-" to the name "Dionysius" in most modern references to these works). Avicenna – Aquinas frequently cites this Persian polymath, the Aristotelian/Neoplatonic/Islamic philosopher Ibn Sina (Avicenna). Al-Ghazel – Aquinas also cites the Islamic theologian al-Ghazali (Algazel). Rabbi Moses – Rabbi Moses Maimonides: a Jewish rabbinical scholar, a near-contemporary of Aquinas (died 1204, before Aquinas). The scholastics derived many insights from his work, as he also employed the scholastic method.