Kashmiri cuisine is the traditional culinary practices of the Kashmiri people. Rice has been a staple food in Kashmir since ancient times. The equivalent for the phrase "bread and butter" in the Kashmiri language is haakh-batte (greens and rice).
Kashmiri cuisine is generally meat-heavy. The region has, per capita, the highest mutton consumers in the Indian Subcontinent. Lamb or sheep is the preferred choice of meat amongst Pandits, whereas Muslims prefer goats.
In a majority of Kashmiri cooking, bread is not part of the meal. Bread is generally only eaten with tea in the morning, afternoon and evening. The cooking methods of vegetables, mutton, homemade cheese (paneer), and legumes by Muslims are similar to those of Pandits, except in the use of onions, garlic and shallots by Muslims in place of asafoetida. Cockscomb flower, called "mawal" in Kashmiri, is boiled to prepare a red food colouring, as used in certain dishes mostly in Wazwan. Kashmiri Pandit cuisine uses the mildly pungent Kashmiri red chili powder as a spice, as well as ratanjot to impart colour to certain dishes like rogan josh. Kashmiri Muslim cuisine uses chilies in moderate quantity, and avoid hot dishes at large meals. In Kashmiri Muslim cuisine, vegetable curries are common with meat traditionally considered an expensive indulgence. Wazwan dishes with rice, some vegetables and salad are prepared for weddings and special occasions like Eid.
History
From the Mahabharata to the Iranian invasion of Kashmir (which was a part of Gandhara) by Darius in 516 BC, to the Mauryans who established Srinagara to the Kushan Empire to the invasion of Kashmir by Timur in 1398, the culture and cuisine of Kashmiris are linked to South Asia, Persian and Central Asian cuisines mixed with local innovations and availabilities of ingredients. The cuisine of Kashmir developed in response to the region's cold climate and long winters, contributing to the widespread use of slow-cooked dishes, dried vegetables, and preserved ingredients. The term kabab is Arabic in origin, korma has Turkish roots, and rogan josh, yakhaen, ab gosht, riste and goshtabh stem from Persian sources.
Early history
There is a legend that aeons ago Kashmir valley was a vast mountain lake. The soil contains remains of fresh-water fish and fossil-oysters and the black shells of water chestnut may be found in layers embedded in the earth at a height of 457 metres above the level of the valley.
Paleolithic age
The process of Kashmir's amalgamation with outer world commenced with the importation of primitive forms of snake and fire worship from Iran. Since Paleolithic times, serpents were worshipped and buried with a supply of insects in their graves as a provision for their future life. In addition, they splashed grains at shrines and graves to express regard unto snakes and other animals. Bommai Sopore archaeological site, discovered by Dr Mamtaz Yatoo in 2005, has a prehistoric rock engraving, the first of its kind found in Kashmir. This Upper Paleolithic engraving depicts chase and game engagements of the prehistoric population. Recent investigations by archaeologists at Overa valley of Pahalgam have revealed stone tools of Paleolithic ages, including single-edged stone blades used for preying of animals.
Neolithic culture
Even before the Megalithic culture that followed the Neolithic period, there is evidence of wheat, barley and lentil cultivation. Clear evidence for agriculture in the form of large domestic storages of grain and rachises of wheat and barley, as well as millets, were found after 2500 BC in Qasim Bagh in Kashmir. The Kashmir Valley contains multiple sites of the so-called Northern Neolithic, possibly dating as early as 3000 BC when climate became warmer. Excavations from Pethpuran Teng suggest a wider network of contact of this early population, and a significantly deeper time transition of broom-corn millets across the Inner Asian mountains. The date range returned from the lentil samples at Pethpuran Tang represent one of the earliest dated pulse crops from the region (c. 2700 BC). While the valley is altitudinally comparable to other inter-montane agro-pastoralist sites in Central Asia, Kashmir's slightly lower latitude presented the valley as a geographic threshold where crops could be grown without the necessary introgression of traits allowing their cultivation in higher and more northerly regions.
The range of tools recovered at the Neolithic site of Burzahom, in the district of Srinagar shows the men were skilled hunters with knowledge of implements for cultivation. Stone hearths have been found at ground levels, near the mouth of pits. The Period II (Ceramic Neolithic) structures show a dish with a hollow stand and a globular pot. Rectangular harvesters with a curved cutting edge have also been recovered. Presence of harpoons indicates fishing. The art-producing behaviour of Neolithic men is witnessed in a hunting scene, with human, a dog and a sun path diagram. Mortar and pestle characterised by a rectangular cross-section are made of the same volcanic rock as used by the current Kashmiris. The presence of lentil explains that the people of Burzahom had wide contacts with Central Asia. Harvesters (both in stone and bone) with two holes for handling it indicate contacts with China.
At the Gufkral Neolithic site 41 km southwest of Srinagar, archaeologists have confirmed settlers were engaged in wild game as well as domestication of animals. The animals that were known at the time were wild sheep, wild goat, wild cattle, red deer, wolf, Himalayan Ibex and bear. Roasting of food (both flesh and grain) was done only outside as no hearths or fireplaces were found inside the dwelling pits. Piercers were used for making incisions and for tearing open the flesh after the animal was killed and skinned, scrapers were used to scrape fat from the flesh. In the Phase IB of Neolithic occupation, some new additions included cattle and common peas. Pig (sus scrofa) and fish made their appearance in the late Neolithic period. Bones of hare (lepus), hedgehog, rodents and beaver were also recovered.
On the basis of the presence of emmer wheat (Triticum dicoccum) at Kanispur, seven kilometres east of Baramulla, contact of Harappans with the Neolithic Kashmir has been suggested. With the Aryan migration to Kashmir around the 8th century BC, the fire worship cult got embedded into the innate religio-cultural texture of Kashmir through practices such as a phallic emblem of cooked rice. The local ceremony of vayuk is again near to the Iranian style of Farvadin. On a special day of the month, Kashmiri Muslims remember their dead, visit their graves and distribute loaves of rice.
Indo-Greek and Kushana period
Earthen thalis (pans) have been found at Semthan, north of Bijbehara from the Indo-Greek period (200 BC – 1st century AD). Handis (metal pots), flat plates, pedestalled cups and edged bowls have been reported in large numbers from the excavated sites of Harwan, Kanispur and Semthan. At Kanispur, cooking pots have been found. Kushan coins have been recovered in large numbers from the Kashmir valley with those of Kanishka continuing to emulate Vima's motif of king sacrificing at an altar.
The Kushan period is characterised by a double-cropping pattern, suggesting a change in agricultural practices associated with a population recovery following a post-Neolithic decline. Finds of Vitis vinifera (Common Grape Vine), Emblica officinalis (Indian Gooseberry), Ziziphus nummularia (Wild Jujube), Juglans regia (English Walnut) and Prunus amygdalus (Almond) suggest that horticulture and foraging played an important role in the diet of the occupants. The Kushan remains from Kanispur are dominated by barley, in contrast to Semthan where wheat is more common.
The Kushana history tells us that right from the days of the Kushana rulers (1st century AD – 450 AD) there were contacts between Romans and Kashmir. Kashmir was connected to the southern silk route via Gilgit and Yasin valley at Tashkurghan. The main items of export to Rome were saffron and dolomiaea costus (kutha). Dolomiaea costus was used in Rome for various purposes, among which for scenting of food and seasoning of wine.
Hindu dynasties
There were military contacts between the Karkota kingdom in Kashmir and the Tang (618 AD – 907 AD) court in China. When the Chinese Tang Dynasty successfully defeated the Tibetan forces and entered little Palur in October 722 AD, Kashmir was credited for providing agricultural supplies essential to sustaining the Chinese troops stationed in Gilgit valley.
Kashmir Sultanate (1346 – 1580s)
Since Islam did not directly arrive from Arabia to Kashmir, it naturally carried with it mixed Iranian and Central Asian influences. Similarly, the Kashmiri Hindus were doing things which would have frightened orthodox Hindus from India. They drank water brought by a Muslim, ate food that was cooked in a Muslim boat and even Muslim foster-mothers were allowed to feed their children. Hence, the rishi cult identified with Hinduism in subscribing to vegetarianism, non-injury to animals and abstaining from the use of garlic and onion in food. Nund Rishi, according to a legend, subsisted on a diet of dried dandelion leaves and Lal Ded preached and practised strict vegetarianism.
Moreover, when Yusuf Shah Chak, the last sovereign king of Kashmir signed a treaty with emperor Akbar recognising his symbolic sovereignty in 1586 one of the terms was that the mint, the saffron and game would remain under imperial control.
Mughals (1580s – 1750s)
In Srinagar, poor people's meals were made of ghee, milk, beef, onions, wine, pickles, and vinegar. Rice, fish, and numerous vegetables were staple foods during the Mughal era. Butter and fats were not widely used in cooking since they were believed to be dangerous owing to the cold environment. The river water was not drunk by the people of South Kashmir. They drank Dal Lake water, which was warm, pleasant, and easily digestible.
In 1635–36, during Shahjahan's reign, a violent conflict flared up between the Shias and Sunnis when a group of both the sections were eating mulberries at Maisuma and some were accused of using indecent words against Muhammad. In 1641, unprecedented floods followed by a famine rendered the villages desolate. Shahjahan sent 30,000 rupees to the subedar Tarbiyat Khan to be distributed among the destitute in Srinagar and also ordered that five centres should be opened in the valley to provide free food to the needy.
Sikh Rule (1819–1846)
Cow slaughter was declared a crime punishable by death and many people accused of killing cows were publicly hanged. Owing to the shortsighted policy of the rulers Kashmír witnessed an acute agrarian crisis. Sikh rulers imposed one half of the paddy production as a share of the government. The population of Kashmir decreased from 800,000 in 1822–1823 to 120,000 in 1835.
Dogra Rule (1846–1947)
Coarse rice and haakh constituted the main food. Where paddy cultivation was restricted due to uneven terrain and lack of irrigation facilities, wheat and maize constituted the main items of food. In certain parts of Kashmir they lived on aquatic products such as singhara (water nuts).
Kashmiri apples were carried by coolies on their backs over 12 days to Rawalpindi in British India.
The famine of 1878–79 was deadly. Also, catching and eating of fish by men driven by hunger was made unlawful by an edict during the reign of Maharaja Ranbir Singh. Often anyone who killed a cow was boiled in oil and the hung from a hook which was fixed on to a pole in a public place. People did not possess any right to waste land and the only right which the villager had was that he could plant trees on such lands, and was the owner of the trees and not of land. Milk and butter was often taken away from gujjars (nomadic herdsmen) without payment by the officials.