Mirza Hasan Ashtiani (), commonly known by the bestowed title Mostowfi ol-Mamalek (; 5 October 1871 – 28 August 1932) was an Iranian politician and statesman who served as the prime minister of Iran on six occasions from 1910 to 1927.
Early life Mostowfi al-Mamalek came from an important aristocratic and well-known family of high-ranking bureaucrats during the Qajar era, originally from the province of Ashtian. The family are said to have their origins with the Safavids.Ervand Abrahamian, "A History of Modern Iran" (Cambridge University Press, 2008: , 9780521821391), p. 10. Mostowfi's father was Mirza Yousof Mostowfi al-Mamalek, a bureaucrat of the Qajar court, Naser al-Din Shah's grand vizier and a prime minister. His father was also assigned to determine the new reaches of the city of Tehran when the population reached 150,000. His grandfather was Mirza Hasan Mostowfi al-Mamalek I and was given the title of Mostofi al Mamalek under Mohammad Shah Qajar.Mehdi Bamdad, DICTIONARY OF THE NATIONAL BIOGRAPHY OF IRAN TWELFTH, THIRTEENTH AND FOURTEENTH CENTURIES, Vol. 1, pp. 318–312. Mostowfi was also second cousins with Mohammad Mosaddegh, who served as Iran's Prime Minister from 1951 to 1953.Mohammad Mossadegh, Musaddiq's Memoirs (Jebhe, 1988: )
One year before his father's death, Naser al-Din Shah Qajar granted the title Mostowfi ol-Mamalek ("chief financier of the country") to the very young Hasan.ʻAbd Allāh Mustawfī, The administrative and social history of the Qajar period: the story of my life (Mazda Publishers, 1997: ), p. 124. The Mostowfi ol-Mamalek family passed on the central office at the finance ministry from father to son throughout the 19th century and until the 1920s.
When the nobility started to ridicule Hasan for being given such an important job/title at such young age, Naser al-Din Shah, convinced of the young boy's talents, added the title "Aaqaa" (Sir) to Hasan's titles, thereby obliging the nobility to call him "Sir" every time they addressed him. He was since frequently referred to simply as "Aaqaa" in political circles. However, there is a source that suggests that it was his generosity that earned him the title "Aaqaa", rather than it being bestowed upon him.
His education began at the age of five under the tutelage of Mahmud Khan Malekalshoara. He studied all customary subjects such as Arabic grammar and literature, but he also had a good command of the French language.
In 1885, subsequent to his father's death, he undertook all his responsibilities under Mosaddegh's father, Mirza Hedayatollah Vizier Daftar's supervision.
At the age of 18, he married Nasr-ol-Din Shah's granddaughter, Khanom Esmat el Molouk, and became a member of the royal family.
European travel and the creation of the Society for Humanity After a series of disagreements with the newly instated Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, Mostowfi al-Mamalek travelled to Paris from 1900 to 1907.Ervand Abrahamian, "A History of Modern Iran" (Cambridge University Press, 2008: ), p. 49. During this period he visited many European countries and observed their systems of government. During his trips to Europe, Mozaffar ad-Din Shah gave him multiple invitations to return to Iran, however he declined. In the year 1907, after the Persian Constitutional Revolution and the death of Mozaffar ad-Din Shah, Mostowfi al-Mamalek returned to Iran accompanied by Ali Asghar Khan, who had just been appointed Prime Minister of Iran by Mohammad Ali Shah Qajar.
Soon after his return he set up a humanitarian society called the Society for Humanity, Jameeyate Ensaniat, with Mohammad Mosaddegh as his deputy. The society met regularly at Mostowfi's residence and eventually became part of the inter-society confederation, with Mossadegh as their permanent representative.Mohammad Mossadegh, "Musaddiq’s Memoirs" (Jebhe, 1988: ), Chapter 7, p.129.
Political career During the Persian Constitutional Revolution era, Mostowfi was appointed Minister 15 times, and Prime Minister 6 times. At various points in his career he held the positions of prime minister, minister of war, majlis member and minister without portfolio. This was in part due to the political turmoil in Iran at the time which often saw governments only last several months before being replaced.
Popularity and character
Mostowfi has been considered as one of the most popular Iranian politicians of the 20th century.Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power (I.B.Tauris, 2001: ), p. 17. Like his father, Mostowfi is said to have carried himself as a gentleman and was considered kind, honest, steadfast, humble and generous. During his service to Iran, Mostowfi stood up to British and Russian influence in Iran, especially during World War I, giving credence to his reputation as a person of character and integrity. It has been noted that, unlike some of his contemporaries, Mostowfi was patriotic and did not engage with foreign powers in order to preserve or boost his own financial or political standings.Cosroe Chaquèri, Beginning politics : the reproductive cycle of children's tales and games in Iran: a historical inquiry (IMazdazk, 1996), p. 180.
Criticism Despite his perceived popularity Mostowfi has at times been criticised for being unable to form a strong government with the ability to exercise what it presented to the Majlis. It has also been suggested that on occasion Mostowfi showed a lack of strong leadership.
Imperial allegiances Sources disagree on his allegiances to foreign powers with some claiming he was a Russophile and others stating he favoured the Germans and Turks.
Prime minister The First Term Sometime after his return to Iran, Mostowfi became the minister of war until the bombardment of Majlis. Following the conquest of Tehran, first he was appointed the minister of finance in Sepahdar Azam's cabinet and then became the minister of Ahmad Shah Qajar's court. Following to the resignation of Sepadar's first cabinet, he became Ahmad Shah’s prime minister. Mostowfi's first term as Prime Minister of Iran began in July 1910 during the 2nd Majlis. His party, Melliyoun Democrats, were mostly young, well educated and had travelled to Europe. They were in favour of the separation of church and state; taxing the landowners and businesses; adopting compulsory national service and borrowing internally instead of internationally. Mostowfi's cabinet, backed by the Democrats, was known as the "Young Peoples' Cabinet".
During his first term Mostowfi faced the issue of security in Iran. Multiple assassinations of political and religious figures occurred. Mostowfi decided to stop these assassinations and declared that all private citizens turn in their arms.Ervand Abrahamian. Iran between two revolutions, Princeton University Press, 1982, , p. 107 Almost all pro-Democrat forces obliged, however some pro-Moderates forces ignored the order, including Sattar Khan.Ervand Abrahamian. Khomeinism: Essays on the Islamic Republic, I.B. Tauris, 1993, , p. 93 As a result of the pro-Moderates forces actions the government used the newly appointed Tehran police chief, Yeprem KhanErvand Abrahamian. Iran between two revolutions, Princeton University Press, 1982, , p. 99 to exercise the order.Ervand Abrahamian, "A History of Modern Iran" (Cambridge University Press, 2008: ), p. 58. With this Mostowfi proved he was able to make tough decisions when necessary.
During his term in office the government received a letter from the British and Russian Ministers in Tehran complaining about the lack of security on the Bushehr–Shiraz–Isfahan road. The British stated that the Iranian government had three months to rectify the problem. If they failed they would bring in 1500 Indian soldiers under British command to safeguard the route. Mostowfi's government responded by creating the Swedish Gendarmerie, seeing this as a way to keep Iran independent of British involvement in internal security.
With the death of the Regent in September 1910 Parliament was convened to elect the next Regent. The candidates were Mostowfi and Mirza Abolghasem Khan Naser ol Molk. Mostowfi lost the election.Ervand Abrahamian. Iran between two revolutions, Princeton University Press, 1982, , p. 106"Record of Current Events", The American Monthly Review of Reviews (November 1910), pp544–547Janet Afary, The Iranian Constitutional Revolution, 1906–1911: Grassroots Democracy, Social Democracy and the Origins of Feminism (Columbia University Press, 1996) p309
The Second Term Mostowfi's second appointment as prime minister coincided with the onset of World War I. Iran had declared neutrality in the war and the country further reinforced its neutral stance by appointing Mostowfi, who was known to support neutrality.Joseph J. St. Marie, Shahdad Naghshpour, Iran Revolutionary Iran and the United States: Low-Intensity Conflict in the Persian Gulf (Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2011: ), p. 59. However, his government leaned towards the German and the Turks. Being pro-German in this regard was simply seen as a political move to support a third nation that may aid in curbing the influence of the British and Russians in Iran.Cyrus Ghani, Iran and the Rise of the Reza Shah: From Qajar Collapse to Pahlavi Power (I.B.Tauris, 2001: ), p. 20.
Mostowfi approached the Russian authorities and asked that they withdraw their troops from Azerbaijan as their presence gave the Turks a reason to invade. The Russians responded by asking what guarantees could be given that their withdrawal would not be followed by the insertion of the Turks. The absence of a centralised state in Iran can help explain why Mostowfi's cabinet, and the Shah, were both impotent on this matter.Touraj Atabaki, Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in Iran (I.B.Tauris, 2000: 9781860645549), p. 40
In this second term Mostowfi also showed he was taking a stance in relation to the modernisation of Iran. In the program of his second cabinet Mostowfi proposed the abolition of the old pensions system, completion of the new Code, the founding of a secular law school to train personnel for the Ministry of Justice, the founding of several schools for girls and new laws to govern telegraphic communications. These proposals were rejected by the Majlis in 1914.Touraj Atabaki, Azerbaijan: Ethnicity and the Struggle for Power in Iran (I.B.Tauris, 2000: 1860645542, 9781860645549), p. 54
Mostowfi was also elected as MP for Tehran, but resigned in order to become prime minister. His manifesto included several concepts that the Third Majlis passed including laws such as the Military Conscription Act, Ministry of Finance constitution bill and Real Estate tax law.
Mostowfi resigned from his position after both his neutral and withdrawal of Russian forces policies failed.Touraj Atabaki ed., Iran and the First World War: Battleground of the Great Powers (I.B.Tauris, 2006: ), p. 10.
The Third Term In August 1915, less than six months after resigning, Mostowfi once again was prime minister. By the time he took office, German popularity had increased amongst the nationalists.Touraj Atabaki ed., Iran and the First World War: Battleground of the Great Powers (I.B.Tauris, 2006: ), p. 11.
During the Third Majlis the Czarist Russian Army expeditionary force left Qazvin for Tehran.