ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ ibn ʿAbd al-Qays al-Fihrī al-Qurashī (), also simply known as Uqba ibn Nafi (622–683), was an Arab general serving the Rashidun Caliphate since the reign of Umar and later the Umayyad Caliphate during the reigns of Mu'awiya I and Yazid I, leading the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, including present-day Libya, Tunisia, Algeria and Morocco and a failed attempt in Nubia. He is credited with establishing Umayyad rule in North Africa. Uqba was the nephew of Amr ibn al-As. He is often surnamed al-Fihri in reference to the Banu Fihr, a clan connected to the Quraysh. His descendants would be known as the ʿUqbids or Fihrids. Uqba was defeated and killed at the Battle of Vescera in 683.
Early life Uqba was born in 622. Uqba, as a general of the Rashidun Caliphate, was raised in a thoroughly Islamic environment with a strong military character, and actively participated in the golden age of the Muslim Expansions. He entered the Maghreb alongside his uncle Amr ibn al-As while still in the early years of youth, around the age of fourteen. It is likely that he was accompanied by his father, Nāfiʿ ibn ʿAbd al-Qays, who had taken part in the war against Nubia alongside Abd Allah ibn Sa'd. It is also possible that he entered Barqa via al-Ṣaʿīd or Faiyum. His father Nāfiʿ was one of the first Muslims to settle in Egypt.
Military and Political career Military Role and Expeditions Conquest of Sudan During the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, the Sudanese element entered into the service of the Islamic state. ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ led an expedition into the southern desert, reaching Fezzan, and from there to Waddan, Germa, and Kawar, near Kanem in Bilād al-Sūdān. These regions had broken their pact with the Arab conquerors and fought against them, so he imposed on each of them a tribute of three hundred and sixty slaves.
Role in the Conquests of the Cyrenaican deserts and Fezzan
After Amr ibn al-As had taken control of Barqa, he began preparing to invade the surrounding regions of the Maghreb. He organized two armies: one advanced along the coast to seize Tripolitania and nearby coastal cities such as Sirte and Sabratha, while the other moved inland to capture many of the key settlements in the interior desert—centers of resistance in the heart of the land—to prevent their inhabitants from attacking the Muslims from behind and cutting off their retreat. The most important of these oases was the Fezzan oasis. Amr dispatched his commander ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ to Fezzan, which he conquered, and he then continued his advance until reaching Zawila, which he secured through a peace agreement. ʿUqba succeeded in his mission. According to Ibn Abd al-Hakam, "The land between Barqa and Zawila came under Muslim control." Amr ibn al-As wrote to the Caliph ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab reporting the success of ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ. According to al-Baladhuri:
After capturing Barqa, then proceeding to Tripolitania in 644. Upon conquering Cyrenaica in 642 or 643, Amr ibn al-As fixed the jizyah to be paid by its Berber tribes at 13,000 dinars. After a short while, Amr ibn al-As returned back to Egypt for multiple reasons and one of them was at the request of ʿUmar ibn al-Khattab, after leaving ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ in charge of Barqa and the surrounding desert regions to call their inhabitants to Islam. Barqa then became the base of the Islamic army in western Egypt.
Military Campaigns during the Ummayad Era After the First Fitna and establishment of the Umayyad Caliphate in 661 by Mu'awiya I, a second invasion of the Maghreb began. An army of 10,000 Muslims and thousands of others led by Uqba departed from Damascus and marched into the Exarchate of Africa, beginning another long series of Umayyad attempts to conquer all of Roman Africa. Later, Caliph Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān appointed Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj as governor of Ifriqiya in the year 45 AH / 665 CE. His appointment was primarily due to his capability as a military commander, the large number of his tribesmen in Egypt, and his support for Caliph Uthman ibn Affan during the struggle for the caliphate, in addition to his knowledge of military affairs. He was accompanied by Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan, Yahya ibn al-Hakam, Khalid ibn Thabit al-Fahmi, Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, and Abd Allah ibn Umar, along with detachments from the armies of Levant (al-Sham) and Egypt, numbering ten thousand soldiers. Ibn Hudayj marched with his forces through Barqa and Tripolitania. ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ, who was in command of the garrison in Barca, joined the campaign. Ibn Hudayj benefited from his experience with the nature of warfare in those regions.
Muʿāwiya ibn Ḥudayj was unable to complete the conquest of Ifriqiya, as Caliph Muʿāwiya ibn Abī Sufyān dismissed him in 50 AH / 670 CE and established him as governor of Egypt. He appointed ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ al-Fihri as governor of Ifriqiya.
Governorship of Ifriqya Uqba was appointed as the governor of Ifriqiya after the dismissing of ibn Ḥudayj. It is known that ʿUqba was among the first Muslim soldiers to participate in Amr ibn al-As’s campaign against Barqa in 23 AH / 643–644 CE, and he remained there for a quarter of a century, during which he distinguished himself and led some conquests. ʿUqba had been residing in Barqa and Zawila since the time of Amr ibn al-As’s governorship. Arab historians described ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ as a devout and pious man, calling him “ʿUqba the one whose prayers were answered” (ʿUqba al-mustajāb).
Uqba’s Campaigns in the Desert Hinterland of Tripolitania and Ifriqiya ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ launched a campaign in the desert regions of Tripolitania and Ifriqiya, simultaneously with the coastal campaign of Muʿāwiya ibn Ḥudayj, and under his authority. This followed the general strategy of Arab commanders to secure both desert and coastal zones against any threats that might endanger the main forces from those directions.
Waddan: In 46 AH / 666 CE, ʿUqba set out after Muʿāwiya ibn Ḥudayj, accompanied by two Muslim commanders experienced in desert warfare: Busr ibn Abi Artat and Sharik ibn Sumayya al-Muradi. He reached Ghadames from Sirte, leaving his army there under the command of Umar ibn Ali al-Qurashi and Zuhayr ibn Qays al-Balawi. He then advanced with a force of 400 cavalry, 100 camels, and 800 water-skins until he arrived at Waddan, which he conquered. He imposed a fine on its king of 360 slaves for violating a prior treaty made with Busr during Amr ibn al-As’s siege of Tripoli.
Germa: From Waddan, ʿUqba advanced to Germa, the principal city of the Fezzan region. As he approached, he sent a message inviting them to embrace Islam. They accepted, and he encamped six miles outside the city. Their king came to meet ʿUqba and agreed to pay a tribute of approximately 360 slaves. ʿUqba immediately sent this tribute eastward.
Kawar: ʿUqba continued his advance southward, conquering the forts of Fezzan until he reached Kawar. According to al-Bakri, he arrived at Jawān, a major fortress located on rugged terrain atop a mountain—it was the capital of Kawar. He reached an agreement with its king to pay a tribute of 360 slaves. When ʿUqba asked a guide about lands further south of Kawar, they replied that they knew of none. So he turned back and encamped at a place called Mā' al-Faras (Water of the Horse). The Muslims suffered severe thirst there, nearly dying. ʿUqba prayed two units of prayer and supplicated to God. His horse began pawing at the ground until it uncovered solid rock, from which water burst forth. ʿUqba called on the people to dig, and the spot was named Māʾ al-Faras. Then Uqba returned unexpectedly via a different route from the one he had previously taken to Kawar, until they became reassured and opened the city gates. Then Uqba surprised them and attacked them at night, finding them in a state of security. Uqba engaged them in battle and seized what was in the city. Uqba's sudden return with his army to the lands of Kawar was a very skillful maneuver, through which he applied the principle of surprise timing, descending upon Kawar at a time when its people did not expect it. After that, Uqba returned and camped at the location of Zawila, then departed to his soldiers after five months. Uqba penetrated the desert with few, light forces because movement in the desert is very difficult with large forces due to the scarcity of water. This was also because he estimated that he would not encounter large forces during his penetration, as the regular Roman forces would not be able to fight in such terrain—their domain being the coastal areas where water is available. Thus, Uqba faced only the forces of the original desert inhabitants. He marched with his army heading toward the Maghreb and avoided traveling on the coastal road that connects Sirte with Gabès, either due to the abundance of fortresses and garrisons in this coastal region, or because he wanted to surprise the people of Ifriqiya by storming their lands coming from within the desert before they had prepared to repel and resist him. Uqba sent a detachment from his army to Ghadames and conquered it. Then he marched to conquer Gafsa and Kasserine (Qastiliya), then Uqba returned to Kairouan. Caliph Muawiya ibn Abi Sufyan was fully aware of what was happening on the soil of the Maghreb and was also knowledgeable about Uqba ibn Nafi's military efforts.Therefore, he appointed Uqba ibn Nafi as governor of Ifriqiya in the year 50 AH / 670 CE and sent him ten thousand horsemen, to whom Uqba added those Berbers who had converted to Islam, the army stationed in the city of Sirte in Cyrenaica, in addition to the detachment with which he had raided Fezzan and Kawar.
Uqba realized that the Islamic conquest would not be stabilized except by establishing a city on the Maghrebi soil to serve as a headquarters for Muslims and a launching point for continuing the Islamic conquests. Therefore, he began building the city of Kairouan. In other words, the founding of Kairouan was a true expression of the stability of the Islamic entity in the Maghreb, and with Uqba's governorship began the province of Ifriqiya, even though it remained subordinate for some time to the government of Fustat.Undoubtedly, the establishment of Kairouan demonstrates sound political thinking, as this would help transform the Maghreb into part of the Caliphate, thereby achieving the supreme goal of the Islamic conquest movement. Without this, it would remain merely a frontier region of raids and expeditions.
The building of Kairouan demonstrates Uqba ibn Nafi's deep understanding of the psychology of the people of the land where he had stayed for nearly a quarter of a century. He said: