Verbs in Circassian languages can be distinguished between transitivity (intransitive, transitive and ditransitive), and valency (monovalent, bivalent and trivalent).
Transitivity and valency Verbs in Circassian languages, encompassing both the Adyghe and Kabardian language, can be ditransitive, transitive or intransitive. Depending on their valency (the number of arguments they require), they are categorized into the following main types:Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 31–33.
Monovalent Intransitive Verbs Bivalent Intransitive Verbs Bivalent Transitive Verbs Trivalent Ditransitive Verbs
A fundamental rule of Circassian grammar is that a verb can contain at most three arguments: one Absolutive, one Ergative, and one Oblique.
There are also special cases like Labile (Ambitransitive) Verbs, where the direct object of its transitive use corresponds to the subject of its intransitive use, and Causative Verbs, which increase valency by turning an intransitive verb into a transitive one or a bivalent transitive into a trivalent one.
Monovalent Intransitive Verbs In a sentence with a monovalent intransitive verb, there is no direct object, and the real subject is usually expressed by a noun in the absolutive case (marked as -р).Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 87–89.
Sentence Gloss Function Translation Ady: р Kbd: р Cowherd-ABS stands S VERB "The cowherd is standing (there)." Ady: р Kbd: р Guard-ABS goes S VERB "The security guard is going." Ady: р Kbd: р Man-ABS sleeps S VERB "The man is sleeping."
Bivalent Intransitive Verbs (Intransitive with Indirect Objects) In the Circassian language, intransitive verbs can have indirect objects. The subject is in the absolutive case (-р), while the indirect objects are expressed by a noun in the oblique case (which is marked as -м).Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 95–96.
Sentence Gloss Function Translation Ady: р м Kbd: р м Boy-ABS girl-OBL kisses S IO VERB "The boy kisses the girl." Ady: р м Kbd: р м Man-ABS tree-OBL lies-under S IO VERB "The man lays under the tree." Ady: р м Kbd: р м Boy-ABS book-OBL reads S IO VERB "The boy reads the book."
Bivalent Transitive Verbs In a sentence with a bivalent transitive verb, the noun in the subject's position is in the ergative case (marked as -м), and the noun in the direct object's position is in the absolutive case (marked as -р).Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 94–95.
Sentence Gloss Function Translation Ady: м р Kbd: м р Boy-ERG letter-ABS writes A O VERB "The boy is writing the letter." Ady: м р Kbd: м р Carpenter-ERG hammer-ABS took A O VERB "The carpenter took the hammer." Ady: м р Kbd: м р Dog-ERG rabbit/hare-ABS caught A O VERB "The dog has caught the rabbit/hare."
Trivalent Ditransitive Verbs Trivalent Ditransitive verbs involve three participants: a subject (Agent), a direct object (Theme), and an indirect object (Recipient/Goal). The subject is in the ergative case (-м), the direct object is in the absolutive case (-р), and the indirect object is in the oblique case (-м).Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 100–101.
Sentence Gloss Function Translation Ady: м р м Kbd: м р м Boy-ERG apple-ABS girl-OBL gives A O IO VERB "The boy gives the apple to the girl." Ady: м р м Kbd: м р м Man-ERG rock-ABS sea-OBL throws-into A O IO VERB "The man throws the rock into the sea." Ady: м р м Kbd: м р м Host-ERG happened news-ABS guest-OBL told A O IO VERB "The host told the news of what happened to the guest."
Active and Antipassive Voice Circassian monovalent intransitive verbs are not all alike in their voice properties. They are divided into two distinct types based on their semantic role and morphological pattern: active monovalent intransitive verbs and antipassive monovalent intransitive verbs. Understanding this distinction is essential for predicting how a verb will behave when its valency increases.Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 33–34.Rogava & Kerasheva (1966), pp. 95–101.
The core distinction is as follows: active intransitive verbs always have the patient/undergoer in the absolutive case, while antipassive verbs always have the actor/agent in the absolutive case. When a verb theoretically has all three forms, the pattern is:
+ Theoretical Three-Form Pattern Voice Argument Structure Active Intransitive Patient-ABS Active Transitive Actor-ERG, Patient-ABS Antipassive Actor-ABS
This same principle applies when an antipassive monovalent verb shifts to a bivalent intransitive: the actor remains in the absolutive and a new oblique participant is introduced, rather than the actor being demoted:
+ Antipassive to Bivalent Intransitive Pattern Form Argument Structure Antipassive Monovalent Actor-ABS Bivalent Intransitive Actor-ABS, Patient/Theme-OBL
Alignment Comparison: Passives and Antipassives To understand the mirror-image nature of these alignments, it helps to look at how each system reduces a transitive sentence.Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 53–55.
In a Nominative-Accusative language like English, the default focus is on the agent. To drop the object, an intransitive verb is used. To drop the agent, the language must use a passive construction. Active Transitive: The boy cleans the house. Active Intransitive: The boy cleans. (Object dropped) Passive Intransitive: The house is being cleaned. (Agent dropped)
In an Ergative-Absolutive language like Adyghe, the focus shifts depending on whether the action involves an object. When a transitive verb is reduced to an intransitive form, the result can be either an active intransitive (where the patient/undergoer becomes the absolutive subject) or an antipassive (where the agent becomes the absolutive subject and the object is dropped):
+ The "Clean" Root (укъэбзын) Voice Circassian Example Gloss Translation Active Transitive Boy-ERG house-ABS cleans "The boy cleans the house." Active Intransitive House-ABS cleans "The house becomes clean." (Agent dropped) Antipassive Intransitive Boy-ABS cleans "The boy cleans." (Object dropped)
This structural symmetry can also be seen with the verb "to write" (тхын). In this case, the antipassive is heavily used, even though the monovalent active intransitive form is never used in speech:
+ The "Write" Root (тхын) Voice Circassian Example Gloss Translation Active Transitive Boy-ERG word-ABS writes "The boy writes the word." Active Intransitive(not used) Word-ABS writes "The word is written." (Agent dropped) Antipassive Intransitive Boy-ABS writes "The boy writes." (Object dropped)
Important: The existence of all three forms (active intransitive, active transitive, and antipassive) for a single verb root is found only in certain dialects. In the Standard Circassian languages (Standard Adyghe and Kabardian), most verb roots exhibit only two of the three forms, while the third is absent. The examples above illustrate the theoretical three-way system; see Distribution of Verb Forms below for what actually occurs in the standard languages.
Monovalent Verb Types Monovalent verbs take only a single core argument. Depending on their semantics and morphology, they fall into two types: Active Monovalent Intransitive Verbs Antipassive Monovalent Intransitive Verbs
Active Monovalent Intransitive Verbs Active monovalent verbs describe states, conditions, or non-volitional processes. They are often strictly monovalent, meaning they do not have transitive variants in the standard language. Examples include: "to sit", "to talk", etc. Their single argument (the patient or undergoer) is in the absolutive case.
Sentence: Word: Мыжъо-р мэджыджэ Gloss: The rock-ABS is rolling Function: S VERBintrans Translation: "The rock is rolling."
Morphologically, the present tense of active monovalent verbs is characterized by the prefix vowel э and the root ending in ы.
+ Active Monovalent Intransitive Verbs 3rd Person 1st Person Present Past Translation Present Past Translation "(s)he burns" "I burn" "(s)he stands still" "I stand still" "(s)he cries" "I cry" "(s)he dries" "I dry" "(s)he tickles" "I tickle" "(s)he sits" "I sit" "(s)he gets up" "I get up" "(s)he lies down" "I lie down"
Antipassive Monovalent Intransitive Verbs Unlike active monovalent verbs, antipassive monovalent verbs usually have a bivalent (intransitive or transitive) variant. In these antipassive forms, the default object has been dropped, and the agent takes the absolutive case.
Sentence: Word: ЛӀыр-р мал1э Gloss: The man-ABS is dying Function: S VERBintrans Translation: "The man is dying."
Morphologically, they are marked by a pattern containing a long vowel а and ending in a short э.
+ Antipassive Monovalent Intransitive Verbs 3rd Person 1st Person Present Past Translation Present Past Translation "(s)he writes" "I write" "(s)he sews" "I sew" "(s)he eats" "I eat" "(s)he plows" "I plow" "(s)he begs" "I beg" "(s)he strikes" "I strike" "(s)he spits" "I spit"
Distribution of Verb Forms in Standard Circassian In Standard Circassian, verb roots typically exhibit only two of the three possible forms (active intransitive, active transitive, antipassive). The full three-way system is found only in certain dialects. The following patterns are observed in the standard languages:Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 87–94.
Active Intransitive + Transitive (no antipassive) The monovalent intransitive form is active (patient/undergoer is the absolutive subject). When transitivized, a new agent is introduced in the ergative case, and the patient remains in the absolutive case. No antipassive form exists.Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 87–94.
Root Active Intransitive Transitive Translation Ӏун "to sound" мэӀу еӀу "(s)he hears it" къутэн "to break" мэкъутэ екъутэ "(s)he breaks it" укӀын "to kill" мэукӀы еукӀы "(s)he kills it" стын "to burn" мэсты къесты "it burns him/her/it"
къутэн "to break" Sentence: Ӏанэр мэкъутэ. ЛӀым Ӏанэр екъутэ. Word: Ӏанэ-р мэкъутэ ЛӀым Ӏанэр екъутэ Gloss: The table-ABS breaks The man-ERG the table-ABS breaks Function: S VERBintrans A O VERBtrans Translation: "The table breaks." "The man breaks the table."
Ӏун "to sound" Sentence: Музикэр мэӀу. КӀалэм музикэр еӀу. Word: Музикэ-р мэӀу КӀалэм музикэр еӀу Gloss: The music-ABS sounds The boy-ERG the music-ABS hears Function: S VERBintrans A O VERBtrans Translation: "The music sounds." "The boy hears the music."
Verbs in this category that begin with the prefix у- inherently carry a causative meaning. Due to this causative nature, they function as bivalent transitive verbs, where an agent in the ergative case causes a change of state or an action to occur to the patient in the absolutive case.
Root Active Intransitive Transitive Translation ухын "to finish" мэухы еухы "(s)he finishes it" узэдын "to load" мэузэды еузэды "(s)he loads it" укъэбзын "to clean" мэукъэбзы еукъэбзы "(s)he cleans it" уш1оин "to befoul" мэуш1ои еуш1ои "(s)he befouls it"
ухын "to finish" Sentence: Ӏофыр мэухы. КӀалэм Ӏофыр еухы. Word: Ӏофы-р мэухы КӀалэм Ӏофыр еухы Gloss: The work-ABS gets finished The boy-ERG the work-ABS finishes Function: S VERBintrans A O VERBtrans Translation: "The work gets finished." "The boy finishes the work."
Antipassive + Transitive (no active intransitive) The monovalent intransitive form is antipassive (agent is the absolutive subject, object dropped). When transitivized, the agent is promoted to the ergative case and a direct object is introduced in the absolutive case. The active intransitive form is rare in standard Circassian, though theoretically it can exist.Kumakhov & Vamling (2009), pp. 87–94.