The Uprisings against Uthman were a series of political and military conflicts that developed during the later years of the caliphate of Uthman ibn Affan, particularly from 654 to 656. Opposition to Uthman's administration grew among groups in Egypt, Iraq, and Medina, eventually developing into armed rebellions and culminating in the assassination of Uthman in Medina in 656 by rebels from Egypt following the siege of his residence.
The opposition brought together groups with different grievances. The Qurrā, an influential group of Quran readers and early settlers, opposed aspects of Uthman's fiscal policies, including his efforts to have surplus revenue from conquered lands transferred to Medina. Other critics, including prominent companions of Muhammad and members of the Quraysh, accused Uthman of favoring his kinsmen from the Umayyad clan and appointing them to important positions at the expense of other early Muslims.
Following Uthman's death, the political order of the caliphate broke down, and Ali ibn Abi Talib was elected as his successor. His accession was rejected by Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, the governor of Syria, who refused to recognize Ali's authority. The resulting struggle developed into the First Fitna, a civil war that reshaped the political and religious landscape of the early Islamic state.
Background The third caliph, Uthman ibn Affan, faced accusations of systemic nepotism by consolidating administrative power within the Umayyad family and their parent clan, the Banu Abd-Shams. Under his predecessors, Abu Bakr and Umar, political influence was balanced between the Ansar of Medina and the early Muhajirun. However, Uthman altered this dynamic by appointing kinsmen as governors and granting substantial land and monetary gifts to relatives, most notably Marwan ibn al-Hakam and Sa'id ibn al-As.
The crisis was further exacerbated by Uthman's efforts to centralize the Caliphate's fiscal affairs. He reclassified provincial crown lands as state assets and ordered that economic surpluses, particularly from Iraq, be forwarded to the central treasury in Medina. This policy directly challenged the autonomy of local tribal settlers who viewed these revenues as communal property. In Kufa, the governor Sa'id ibn al-As famously provoked a riot by declaring the fertile lands of the Sawad to be the "garden of the Quraysh." These centralization efforts, combined with the perceived marginalization of early Islamic elites, fueled organized opposition across Egypt, Iraq, and the Hijaz.
The emerging dissent was driven by a diverse coalition of elites and provincial actors. Political catalysts included senior companions of Muhammad and the Meccan nobility, such as Talha ibn Ubayd Allah and Aisha bint Abi Bakr, who emerged as prominent critics and reportedly encouraged unrest through correspondence with provincial leaders. This discontent was further fueled by Uthman's perceived mistreatment of established tribal elites, such as the public beatings of Ammar ibn Yasir and a respected member of the Banu Makhzum, as well as the exile of Abu Dharr al-Ghifari, who had campaigned against the accumulation of wealth by the Umayyad elite.
Parallel to these grievances, a significant faction of the nascent opposition consisted of individuals who would later form the backbone of the Kharijite movement. Many were drawn from the qurra of Iraq, who merged political grievances with the theological belief that a caliph's legitimacy was contingent on strict adherence to religious justice. These proto-Kharijites sought to undermine the hegemony of the Quraysh and restore provincial autonomy. Primarily based in Iraq, they were instrumental in the initial uprisings and later formed the Haruriyya. During this early period, they were among the most steadfast supporters of Ali's camp against the Umayyad administration.
Uprisings Uprising in Kufa The political situation in Kufa deteriorated sharply in 654. In response, Caliph Uthman convened a consultative meeting in Medina with provincial governors and dispatched agents to inspect grievances in Kufa, Basra, Egypt, and Syria. However, the agent sent to Egypt, Ammar ibn Yasir, who was a supporter of Ali, defected and joined the local rebels.
When the Kufan governor, Sa'id ibn al-As, departed for the consultative summit in Medina, the opposition publicly demanded the Caliph's resignation. These protesters were primarily early settlers whose privileges were threatened by Uthman's centralization and the arrival of new tribal groups. The movement was coordinated by Yazid ibn Qays al-Arhabi, a tribal leader and future leader of the Muhakkima, who recalled exiled dissidents such as Malik al-Ashtar from Syria. Al-Ashtar mobilized the populace by alleging that the Caliph had ordered a drastic reduction in military and civilian stipends.
Exploiting the governor's absence, the rebels seized control of the city and deployed armed units to secure the province. They established a strategic garrison at Ayn al-Tamr to block the road to Damascus and stationed 1,000 troops near Hulwan to control the Jibal route. Further forces were positioned at Kashkar, al-Mada'in, and Jukah to defend against intervention from Basra and to police the Tigris region. Rebel commanders were explicitly instructed to obstruct all federal tax collection.
To cement their control, al-Ashtar dispatched 500 troops under Malik ibn Ka'b to intercept Sa'id ibn al-As on his return from Medina. Confronting the governor, the rebels famously declared that he would not drink another drop from the Euphrates, which forced him to retreat to Medina. Despite this military success, the rebels' appointment of the neutral Abu Musa al-Ash'ari as the new governor proved tactically flawed. His lack of support from the central government and his indecisive leadership left the Kufan administration in a state of political instability.
Uprising in Egypt In 651, the Egyptian governor Abd Allah ibn Sa'd led a military expedition to Nubia that failed to achieve victory and resulted in a peace treaty with the Kingdom of Makuria. This military setback, combined with the governor's determination to increase the revenue sent to Medina, caused significant friction with the local garrison. The arrival of new settlers further strained Egyptian resources and marginalized the original conquerors of the province. This discontent peaked in 656 when Ibn Sa'd departed for the consultative meeting in Medina.
In the governor's absence, Muhammad ibn Abi Hudhayfa staged a coup against the provincial administration. Leveraging the unrest among the early Arab settlers, he effectively challenged Ibn Sa'd's authority, eventually forcing the governor to retreat from Fustat, the administrative capital of the province. While a loyalist faction led by Mu'awiya ibn Hudayj and Maslama ibn Mukhallad remained steadfast in their allegiance to the Caliph, the majority of the military garrison pledged their support to Ibn Abi Hudhayfa. His coalition was primarily composed of the original conquerors of the province, whose long-standing monopoly over Egyptian fiscal revenues and political autonomy had been systematically eroded by Uthman's centralization policies.
To de-escalate the crisis, Sa'd ibn Abi Waqqas traveled to Egypt to negotiate with the rebels. However, his mission failed when his tent was attacked and he was wounded, forcing his immediate return to Medina. Following this, approximately 400 protesters formed a delegation led by Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr to confront the Caliph.
The Rebel March on Medina In 655, Caliph Uthman led the Hajj pilgrimage and organized a consultative council in Medina with his provincial governors to address the growing unrest. During the proceedings, some officials recommended a rigorous suppression of the agitators or the deployment of additional troops to key garrison towns to enforce order. Others advised the Caliph to address the administrative grievances directly by replacing unpopular officials. In contrast, prominent critics outside the administration, such as Amr ibn al-As, argued that the Caliph had deviated from the practices of his predecessors and condemned the concentration of power within the Umayyad clan.
Meanwhile, rebel contingents from Egypt, Kufa, and Basra mobilized in their respective provinces and coordinated a march on Medina to hold Uthman accountable and demand his resignation. The Egyptian contingent was led by Abd al-Rahman ibn Udays and included 600 men, while the Kufan and Basran contingents were led by Malik al-Ashtar and Hurqus ibn Zuhayr respectively. To avoid early detection, the delegations moved under the guise of performing the Hajj. The factions were divided in their political loyalties as the Egyptians favored Ali, the Basrans supported Talha, and the Kufans backed Zubayr.
During this time, Uthman's kinsman and the long-time governor of Syria, Mu'awiya ibn Abi Sufyan, offered Uthman military assistance or asylum in Damascus. However, the Caliph refused to leave the city of Muhammad or authorize military intervention against fellow Muslims. Despite Uthman's refusal, Mu'awiya dispatched a relief force of 4,000 Syrian troops under Habib ibn Maslama towards the Hejaz to secure the Caliph's position, acting on his own initiative to protect the integrity of the state.
Upon arriving at the Medina oasis, the groups established separate camps at Awas, Dhu Kushub, and Dhu-l-Marwah. Their presence shocked the local residents and initially pushed many Medinans to renew their support for the Caliph. When the rebels approached their preferred candidates for the caliphate, they were met with rejection. Ali personally drove the Egyptian delegation away and sent his son Hasan to guard Uthman's residence alongside the sons of other notable companions such as Talha and Zubayr. Ali eventually acted as a mediator and suggested the removal of the Egyptian governor, while the rebels demanded the appointment of their leader, Muhammad ibn Abi Bakr.
Although the rebels initially began a retreat from Medina after Uthman agreed to their demands for reform, the situation turned violent at Aqaba. There, the rebels intercepted a messenger carrying a secret letter bearing the Caliph's seal. The document, addressed to Ibn Sa'd, instructed the governor to arrest the delegation and execute its leaders.
Outraged by what they perceived as a betrayal, the rebels returned three days later to Medina to besiege the Caliph's residence. Uthman swore by God that he had no knowledge of the letter. This claim led to suspicions against his secretary, Marwan ibn al-Hakam, who held the seal at the time. While Madelung notes that Ali and Muhammad ibn Maslama suspected Marwan was the true author, historian Hugh N. Kennedy argues that Uthman likely bore responsibility for the order.
Siege of Uthman's Residence
In response to the intercepted letter, the rebels charged Caliph Uthman with incompetence and demanded his resignation. When he refused, the opposition began a formal siege of his residence. Although the rebels initially permitted Uthman to leave for communal prayers, they eventually denied him this right. During a Friday sermon, Uthman and his supporters were pelted with stones until the Caliph was carried home unconscious.
The gates of the residence were defended by a group of young Qurayshi nobles, including Abd Allah ibn al-Zubayr, Abd Allah ibn Abbas, Muhammad ibn Talha, Hasan ibn Ali, and Husayn ibn Ali. They were joined by other noblemen such as Abd Allah ibn Abd al-Rahman, a nephew of Zubayr ibn al-Awwam. He was killed by the rebels after attempting to propose a peaceful settlement based on the Quran. Inside the house, Uthman remained with his wife Na'ila bint al-Furafisa and his secretary Marwan ibn al-Hakam. Despite Uthman forbidding his defenders from escalating the conflict, a clash erupted when the rebels intercepted food supplies sent by Umm Habiba.