The Yaoshi Bao Chan (), officially titled the Cibei Yaoshi Bao Chan (慈悲藥師寶懺, lit: "Jewelled Repentance of the Compassionate Yaoshi") and sometimes known as the Medicine Buddha Repentance, is a Chinese Buddhist repentance rite. It is based around the Buddha Bhaiṣajyaguru, who is commonly known in Chinese as Yaoshi (藥師, lit: "Medicine Teacher"). The ritual was first composed during the early Qing dynasty (1644–1912), and is traditionally ascribed to the Nanshan Vinaya master Jianyue Duti (見月讀體, 1601–1679). The ritual's liturgy received further edits and addendums in later periods, most notably by the Tiantai monk Shou Deng (受登, 1607–1675). In modern times, this rite remains a popular rite in the Chinese Buddhist ritual field, where it is typically performed to extinguish calamities, cure illnesses, prolong lifespans, resolve grievances as well as bring salvation to the deceased.
History
Overview of repentance rites Repentance rites originated from confession rituals, known as Uposatha, in Indian Buddhism, where monastics would confess offenses and recite the Pāṭimokkha on the Uposatha days (full and new–moon days). As early as the first century BCE before Buddhism was transmitted to China, several repentance scriptures in Sanskrit were already in circulation in India, with a key example being the Triskandhadharma Sūtra (三品悔過經), which was later translated to Chinese by the eminent monk Dharmarakṣa and constitutes a chapter in the Mahāratnakūṭa Sūtra. Two of the earliest repentance scriptures translated into Chinese approximately in the middle of the second century CE are the Foshuo asheshiwang jing (佛說阿闍世王經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of King Ajātaśatru Sūtra"), which was translated by An Shigao, and the Foshuo shelifu huiguo jing (佛說舍利弗悔過經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of Śāripūtra Repentance Sūtra"), which was translated by Lokakṣema. Consequently, over the next four centuries, a total of sixty–one repentance scriptures were translated into Chinese.
By the Northern and Southern Dynasties period (420–589), new repentance rituals also began to be composed by monks based on popular scriptures. One prominent example is the Fahua sanmei chanyi (法華三昧懺儀, lit: "Lotus Samādhi Repentance Ritual"), which was compiled by the eminent monk and founder of the Tiantai tradition, Zhiyi (智顗, 538–597). The Fahua sanmei chanyi (Japanese: Hokke zanmai sengi) is still practiced in modern times by contemporary Chinese Tiantai monastics as well as Japanese Tendai monastics. Another notable example of a repentance rite that was composed during this period is the Liang Huang Bao Chan (梁皇寶懺, lit: "Repentance Ritual of the Emperor of Liang"). This extensive ritual, which was originally composed by the eminent Chan Buddhist master Baozhi (寶志, 418–514, traditionally regarded as an emanation of Shiyimian Guanyin) on behalf of Emperor Wu of Liang, has remained highly popular in modern Chinese Buddhist practice and is frequently referred to as the "king of repentance rites" (懺法之王) among practitioners. It is typically performed on an annual or even more frequent basis in most Chinese Buddhist temples, sometimes as part of a larger event like the Shuilu Fahui ceremony. By the Sui dynasty (581–618), repentance rituals were so popular that they were also regularly performed by the imperial court. For instance, the Xu gaoseng zhuan (續高僧傳, lit: "Continued Biographies of Eminent Monks") by the eminent monk Daoxuan (道宣, 596–667), who was a Patriarch of the Nanshan Vinaya tradition, records that Emperor Wen of Sui performed repentance ceremonies whenever he hosted vegetarian feasts by personally holding the incense burner while his official Xiao Cong (萧琮, 558–607), who was previously the Emperor of the Liang dynasty, provided him with guidance on how to manage affairs of state.
As the popularity and number of repentance rites continued to grow, eminent Sui and Tang dynasty (618–907) Buddhist masters and patriarchs such as Zhiyi, Daoxuan and Huineng started to proposed several different schemes of classifying the different rites. In general, these schemes can generally be classified into three types of repentance rituals depending on the severity of the offenses and purposes:
Communal repentance (作法懺悔): Solely for Buddhist monks and nuns who have violated any of their precepts, except the four parajika offenses which entail expulsion from the sangha. Usually held on the days of new and full moon or Uposatha, the precepts are recited according to the seven categories. At the end of each category, the Buddhist monks and nuns are expected to confess if they have violated any of the precepts; otherwise, they remain silent. Visionary or auspicious sign repentance (觀相懺悔): Can be practiced by both monastics and lay people, especially when lay people want to undergo ordination with the Bodhisattva precepts of the Brahmajāla Sūtra. For monastics, the Bodhisattva precepts are transmitted last as part of their ordination. This type of repentance is usually performed in order to receive the Bodhisattva precepts or for purification purposes if a monastic or lay person has violated any of their precepts, except the five grave offenses. Unborn or markless repentance (無生懺悔 or 無相懺悔): Cultivation of this form of repentance mostly entails giving rise to bodhicitta, having compassion for all sentient beings, and deeply examining the source of transgression to see that all dharms, including the nature of one's transgression or offense, is itself empty and has no one to cling to. According to both Zhiyi and Huineng, this form of repentance could eradicate innumerable eons of past major transgressions.
Repentance rituals continued to be highly popular in the succeeding Song (960–1279), Yuan (1271–1368), Ming (1368–1644) and Qing (1644–1912) dynasties, with numerous repentance rituals being composed by various eminent monks and being encoded into standardized monastic regulatory codes. For instance, the Song dynasty Tiantai patriarch Siming Zhili (四明知禮, 960–1028) composed an influential repentance ritual called the Dabei Chan (大悲懺, lit: "Great Compassion Repentance") based around the practice of the Nīlakaṇṭha Dhāraṇī, which remains one of the most popular repentance rites in contemporary Chinese Buddhism, being performed at least once a month or more in most Chinese Buddhist temples. Another example is the Dizang Bao Chan (地藏寶懺, "Jewelled Repentance of Dizang"), which was originally composed by the eminent Ming dynasty monk Ouyi Zhixu (蕅益智旭, 1599–1655), who was a Patriarch of both the Chinese Pure Land and Tiantai traditions. In contemporary Chinese Buddhist practice, various different repentance rites are typically practiced throughout the year, sometimes as independent rituals and other times as part of larger events such as the Shuilu Fahui ceremony.
Worship of Bhaiṣajyaguru (Yaoshi)
Names and epithets In Chinese Buddhist practice, the Buddha Bhaiṣajyaguru is commonly referred to as simply Yaoshi Fo (藥師佛), meaning "Medicine Teacher Buddha", or Yaoshi Rulai (藥師如來), meaning "Medicine Teacher Tathāgata". In many liturgies and ritual contexts, Yaoshi's name is also frequently chanted as either Yaoshi Liuli Guang Rulai (藥師琉璃光如來), meaning "Yaoshi Rulai of Lapis Lazuli Light", or Xiaozai Yanshou Yaoshi Fo (消灾延壽藥師佛), meaning "Yaoshi Fo who averts calamities and extends lifespans".
Translation of sūtras
Worship of Yaoshi in China begin during the Eastern Jin dynasty (266–420) with the translation of the Foshuo guanding bachu guozui shengsi dedu jing (佛說灌頂拔除過罪生死得度經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of the Abhiṣeka that Eliminates Past Offenses and Causes One to Attain Liberation from Birth and Death Sūtra") by the Kuchean monk Po–Śrīmitra. More scriptures regarding Yaoshi were transmitted to China in the succeeding centuries, namely the Foshuo Yaoshi liuli guang jing (佛說藥師琉璃光經, lit: "The Buddha Speaks of Yaoshi of Lapis Lazuli Light Sūtra"), which was translated in 457 by the monk Huijian (慧簡) during the Liu–Song dynasty (420–479), and the Yaoshi Rulai benyuan gongde jing (藥師如來本願功德經 lit: "The Merits of Yaoshi Rulai's Root Vows Sūtra"), which was translated in 615 by the monk Dharmagupta during the Sui dynasty (581–618).
The succeeding Tang dynasty (618–907) saw a further flowering of Buddhism as more scriptures were translated from Sanskrit into Chinese. In particular, numerous esoteric and tantric scriptures were translated as part of this milieu, correlating with the rise in prominence of Zhenyan Buddhism during this period as various eminent tantric masters like Vajrabodhi and Amoghavajra were patronized by the Tang imperial court. Some examples of new scriptures that regarding Yaoshi that were translated during this time include:
Yaoshi Liuli Guang Rulai xiaozai chunan niansong yigui (藥師琉璃光如來消災除難念誦儀軌, lit: "Ritual Manual for the Recitation to Avert Calamities and Remove DIfficulties of Yaoshi Rulai of Lapis Lazuli Light"), which is attributed to Yixing in the Taishō Tripiṭaka Yaoshi Rulai niansong yigui (藥師如來念誦儀軌, lit: "Ritual Manual for the Recitation of Yaoshi Rulai"), by Amoghavajra Yaoshi Rulai niansong fa (藥師如來念誦法, lit: "Method of the Recitation of Yaoshi Rulai"), by Vajrabodhi
Two other sūtras translated during this time that would become very influential in Chinese Buddhist practice are the Yaoshi Liuli Guang Rulai benyuan gongde jing (藥師琉璃光如來本願功德經, lit: "The Merits of Yaoshi Rulai of Lapis Lazuli Light's Root Vows Sūtra"), which was translated by the eminent monk and Patriarch of the Weishi tradition Xuanzang (玄奘, 602–664), and the Yaoshi Liuli Guang Qifo benyuan gongde jing (藥師琉璃光七佛本願功德經, lit: "The Merits of the Seven Yaoshi Buddhas of Lapis Lazuli Light's Root Vows Sūtra"), which was translated by the monk and travel writer Yijing (義淨, 635–713). Xuanzang's translation in particular would become particularly popular and is widely referred to in Chinese Buddhist practice as the Yaoshi jing (藥師經, lit: "Yaoshi Sūtra").
Practices of Yaoshi devotion
Many sūtras describe Yaoshi as having been a Bodhisattva who made twelve great vows about blessing sentient beings as well as relieving the physical and mental suffering caused by the ignorance in their hearts. As his name suggests, he is commonly associated with healing and medicine, and is frequently entreated to avert disasters and prolong one's lifespan. Upon achieving Buddhahood, Yaoshi became the Buddha of the Eastern Pure Land of Vaiḍūryanirbhāsa, which means "Pure Lapis Lazuli". There, he is attended to by two Bodhisattvas symbolizing the light of the sun and the light of the moon respectively: Sūryaprabha (日光菩薩) and Candraprabha (月光菩薩). Iconographic depictions of Yaoshi also frequently depict him together with the Twelve Heavenly Generals, a group of yakshas generals who pledged to protect devotees who practiced Yaoshi's Dharma Door, as well as Eight Great Bodhisattvas mentioned in the Yaoshi jing: Guanyin, Maitreya, Mañjuśrī, Mahāsthāmaprāpta, Ratnacandana, Akṣayamati, Bhaiṣajyarāja and Bhaiṣajyasamudgata. Chinese Buddhist traditions ascribes the 30th day of the ninth lunar month according to the Chinese calendar as Yaoshi's "Birthday", and during this day, monastics and lay followers typically perform rituals and other practices devoted to Yaoshi. In Chinese Buddhist temples, Yaoshi is frequently enshrined as either one out of three Buddha statues in the Daxiongbao Hall (the other two being of Amitābha and Śākyamuni) or in a dedicated hall devoted to him called the Yaoshi Hall.