Ottoman clothing or Ottoman fashion is the style and design of clothing worn during the Ottoman Empire. Fashion during the Ottoman Empire was a significant facet of the empire's cultural identity, serving as a marker of status, occupation, religion, and more.
Reflecting the diverse nature and broad reach of the Ottoman Empire, the attire of both men and women was influenced by a combination of many different traditional dresses.
Ottoman period
While those of the palace and court dressed lavishly, common people were only concerned with covering themselves. Starting in the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent, administrators enacted sumptuary laws about the clothing of Muslims, Christians, Jewish communities, clergy, tradesmen, and state and military officials, particularly strictly enforced during the reign of Suleiman the Magnificent.
In this period men wore outer clothing like the 'mintan' (a vest or short jacket), 'zıbın', 'şalvar' (trousers), 'kuşak' (sash), 'potur', entari or kaftan (long robe), 'kalpak', 'sarık' on the head, and 'çarık', çizme (boots), 'çedik', or 'Yemeni' on the feet. The administrators and the wealthy wore caftans with fur lining and embroidery, whereas the middle class wore 'cübbe' (mid-length robe) or 'hırka' (a short robe or tunic). The poor wore collarless 'cepken' or 'yelek' (vest). One of the most significant reforms in Ottoman fashion took place during the reign of Mahmud II (1808–1839). The modernization attempts of Mahmud II first had their effects in the state sector. While the 'sarık' was replaced by the 'fez', people employed at the Sublime Porte began to wear trousers, 'setre' and 'potin'. Additionally, following the abolition of the janissaries in 1826, Mahmud mandated Westernized uniforms, in an attempt to modernize and distinguish the new armed forces from the old.
Women's everyday wear was şalvar (trousers), a gömlek (chemise) that came down to mid-calf or ankle, a short, fitted jacket called a zıbın, and a sash or belt tied at or just below the waist. For formal occasions, such as visiting friends, the woman added an entari or kaftan, a long robe that was cut like the zıbın apart from the length. Both zıbın and kaftan were buttoned to the waist, leaving the skirts open in front. Both garments also had buttons all the way to the throat but were often buttoned only to the underside of the bust, leaving the garments to gape open over the bust. All of these clothes could be brightly colored and patterned. However, when a woman left the house, she covered her clothes with a ferace, a dark, modestly cut robe that buttoned all the way to the throat. She also covered her hair and face with a pair of veils.
Tanzimat period
During the 'Tanzimat' and 'Meşrutiyet' period in the 19th century, common people still wearing traditional clothing presented a great contrast to the administrators and the wealthy wearing 'redingot', jacket, waistcoat, boyunbağı (tie), 'mintan', sharp-pointed and high-heeled shoes. Women's clothes of the Ottoman period in the 'mansions' and Palace courts included 'Entari', 'kuşak', 'şalvar', 'başörtü', and the 'ferace' of the 19th century without much change.
In the 16th century, women wore two-layer long 'entari' and 'tül', velvet shawls, on their heads. Their outdoor clothing consisted of 'ferace' and 'yeldirme'. The simplification in the 17th century was apparent in an inner 'entari' worn under a short-sleeved, caftan-shaped outfit and a matching belt.
Women's wear became more showy and extravagant, accompanied by adorned hair buns and tailoring. Tailoring in its real sense began in this period. The sense of women's wear primarily began in large residential centers such as Istanbul and İzmir in the 19th century and women gradually began to participate in social life, along with the Westernization movement. Pera became the center of fashion and Paris fashions were followed by tailors of Greek and Armenian origin. In the period of Abdul Hamid II, the 'ferace' (a concealing outer robe shaped like a modestly cut version of the indoor dress) was replaced by 'çarşaf' of different styles. However, the rural sector continued to wear traditional clothing.
Clothing legislation Like many other early modern societies, the Ottoman Empire introduced a bevy of clothing laws meant to regulate social relations and status amongst various groups. Various types of clothing and headgear were strictly reserved for certain classes. These laws often emphasized modesty and social discipline. During the 17th century, however, political crises resulted in chaos in clothes. The excessively luxurious compulsion for consumption and showing off in the Tulip Era lasted until the 19th century. Luxury clothing became a point of contention during the rule of Selim III (1789-1807). Selim was highly critical of his courtiers and their aides dressing extravagantly, as well as tradesmen and commoners who outdressed their rank to try to imitate their noble superiors. In an attempt to regain the dwindling domestic authority and legitimacy of the sultanate, Selim demanded a return to the previous status quo.
Headwear In particular, headgear played a central role in designating social status and position. In the 14th century, a son of Sultan Orhan reserved a particular headgear for himself. Similarly, certain colors of headgear were reserved for members of the Ottoman court, the Greeks, Franks, and other groups. In the 16th century, this informal system of headgear rankings was codified into law, with sultans, viziers, janissaries, and commoners each receiving their designated headgear type. Until 1829, headgear was the most potent indicator of male social status. While commoners wore "külahs" covered with 'abani' or 'Yemeni', higher-ranking men wore a wide variety of turbans.
Royal turbans could be decorated with feathers in an ornamental aigrette. Starting from the 19th century, sultans started wearing fezzes instead of turbans. The daughters of sultans would receive luxurious jewelry when marrying, including diadems or veils with jewels embedded in them. Imperial and noble ladies would also cover their heads with small handkerchiefs and their faces with Brussels net veils.
There are not many records of women's clothing at the time, but artwork can provide some understanding. Headdresses were typically tall, pointed hats with a veil attached to them, which served to cover their faces during outings. In depictions of sultanas, their clothing is mostly fabricated with few references to what Ottoman women actually wore. A portrait of Roxelana depicts her wearing a pillbox-shaped headdress with decorative jewels on the border. While her headdress illustrates popular styles in Ottoman women's headwear at the time, her clothing remains very similar to European-style clothing. This was a popular way to depict women, specifically sultanas.
Many factors contributed to changes in Ottoman women's garments, including the cost of materials and firmans, or royal declarations. At the beginning of the 18th century, upper-class women began wearing yashmaks, or veils that covered their faces when going out. Over time, the yashmaks became more transparent and wider, with silver embroidery. As more changes were made to women's clothing, yashmaks and feraces were seen less as garments to cover the body, and more as decorative and ornamental styles.
In the 19th century, there were more extreme changes in women's clothing. Yemenis, or headscarves, were so thin that their hair was almost all visible. Other traditional garments combined Turkish and European fashions. Around World War I, Turkish women began wearing headscarves tied below the chin instead of the carsaf, a robe-like dress that covered the whole body and head except for the eyes.
Ottoman influence on Western female dress
Interactions between Ottomans and Britons occurred throughout history. After diplomatic relations between the British and Ottoman empires were established in 1580, trade between the two nations increased. Common trades between Ottoman and British merchants involved textiles and fabrics; it was not uncommon to see British merchants loading their baggage with Ottoman garments on the way home. Theatrical productions also played a large role in piquing the interest of Europeans in Ottoman dress. In the 1530s, even before diplomatic relations were established, King Henry VIII dressed as a Turkish sultan for a court masquerade party.
As early as the 17th century, British interest in the fashion of Ottoman women began with the publication of travelers' accounts containing visual descriptions of Ottoman fashion. In the 18th century, however, European visitors and residents in the Ottoman Empire markedly increased. As such, fashion is one method to gauge the increased interactions. At this time, Paris was considered the center of the Ottoman fashion movement in Europe. Turkomania became a fashion fad after the publication of a French illustration album containing engravings of Ottoman outfits. This trend quickly spread to other nations. In 1768, the King of Denmark, Christian VII, held a ball in London where all guests were expected to attend dressed in Ottoman garb.
In addition to Western Europe, Ottoman fashion had an outsized impact on Central and Eastern European nations such as Poland and Hungary. Initially influenced by Western European looks, by the 16th century, Eastern European fashion had a distinct Ottoman flair to it. For example, noblemen favored long, floor-length kaftans with flashy red coloring, slit sleeves, and embroidery. Others wore Turkish kalpaks (high hats) and Ottoman-style leather slippers. In a 1583 portrait, Polish ruler Stephen Báthory is depicted as wearing a kontusz (a garment first introduced to Poland by leaders displaying them as spoils of war), Ottoman-style zupan, and bright yellow Turkish boots. These garments soon became the standard for Polish and Hungarian nobility alike, as two fashions that had once been extremely different had converged due to their Ottomanization.