The Vietnam War (1955-1975) confronted the US Army with a variety of challenges, both in the military context and at home. In the dense jungles of Vietnam, soldiers faced a motivated enemy who often used guerrilla tactics, while the difficult terrain, tropical diseases and the threat of ambushes strained the morale and effectiveness of the troops. At the same time, the conflict led to tensions in the USA: criticism was voiced, for example, regarding conscription and the unequal distribution of the burden - particularly at the expense of the working class and ethnic minorities.
Administrative and organizational reforms of the US Army between the end of the Korean conflict and the entry into the Vietnam War brought significant modernization and innovation (focused mostly on a conflict in Central Europe). The specific demands of the Vietnam War - especially warfare in difficult terrain - revealed the limits of these reforms. While the army was technically well equipped, it suffered from a lack of strategic adaptation and an unbalanced manning policy that at times limited its effectiveness in the conflict.
Leadership, control and organization During the Vietnam War, command of the Army was vested in the President, just as it is today. The Secretary of the Army, or the Office of the Secretary of the Army, was responsible for training, equipping and managing the Army. Within the Office there were four Assistant Secretaries of the Army: Financial Management, Research and Development, Manpower and Reserve Affairs and Installation and Logistics. These in turn reported to the Under Secretary of the Army.
In addition, the Secretary of the Army was assisted by the Administrative Assistant, the General Council, the Chief of Public Information and the Chief of Legislative Liaison. The Secretary of the Army was assisted by the Army Staff, which consisted of the Chief of Staff, the Army General Staff and the Special Staff. The Chief of Staff was the highest military officer of the Secretary of Defense. As a member of the Joint Chief of Staff, he was an advisor to the President, the National Security Council and the Secretary of Defense. Within the Army, he was responsible to the Secretary of the Army and for the administration, training and supply of the Army.
The Chief of Staff headed the Office of the Chief of Staff, which consisted of the Vice Chief of Staff, the Safeguard System Manager, the Director for Civil Disturbance Planning and Operations, the Advanced Aerial Fire Support System Manager, the Assistant Vice Chief of Staff and the Secretary of the General Staff.The Chief of Staff also has 9 other assistants at his disposal: the Deputy Chief of Staff for Military Operations, the Deputy Chief of Staff for Personnel, the Deputy Chief of Staff for Logistics, the Comptroller of the Army, the Chief of Research and Development, the Chief of Reserve Components and the Assistant Chiefs of Staff for Force Development and Intelligence and Communications-Electronics. In addition, 14 Special Staff Officers were assigned to the Chief of Staff.
Division
The divisions were reorganized as part of the Reorganization Objective Army Division (ROAD) structure. The reorganization had begun with the reorganization of the Airborne Divisions in 1964 and the creation of the first Airmobile Division in 1965. There were five types of divisions: Infantry, Mechanized Infantry, Tank, Airborne and Airmobile Divisions. The basis for the realignment was the realization that a standard division was not capable of fulfilling all tasks. It was necessary for divisions to be specialized to some degree and to have a flexible structure that could be tailored to the requirements of different levels of conflict, terrain, climate, enemy capabilities and other conditions. In 1968, the strength of an infantry division was between 15,800 and 19,000 men.
Brigade Battalion Company and Platoon Brigades consisted of different numbers of battalions and support units. A group corresponded to a regiment in terms of echelon, but consisted of a different number and type of attached battalions and companies. Organizationally, there were two types of battalions: Fixed battalions with a staff and a prescribed number of organic units in company strength, permanently assigned to the battalion and designated by letters (e.g. A-D). These included combat units as well as support and service units. Flexible battalions with the staff as the only organic unit.
Separately numbered support/service companies and detachments of different types were subordinated to the battalion in order to adapt it to its mission. Regardless of their type, the infantry battalions had a common basic structure. The battalions had a strength of 800 to 1,000 soldiers, divided into 3 Rifle Companies (A-C) and a Combat Support Company; from 1967, a further Rifle Company (D) was added.
The battalion's staff headquarters consisted of the CO, the XO, the staff officers and the sergeant major. The battalion's staff company was divided into a company staff, a section of the battalion staff with staff assistants and specialists, and several platoons. Communications Platoon: Responsible for the installation, operation and maintenance of the battalion's radio, wire and courier communications systems. Support Platoon: Responsible for the transportation of the battalion and the supply of rations, water, ammunition, fuel, oil and lubricants to the companies. Maintenance Platoon: Responsible for the inspection, testing, maintenance, repair and recovery of equipment Medical Platoon: Responsible for medical care, treatment and evacuation of casualties and containing the spread of disease.
Each rifle company consisted of three platoons. A platoon was the basic tactical unit within a US Army infantry company during the Vietnam War. An infantry platoon typically consisted of 30 to 40 soldiers, divided into a command group (lieutenant, platoon sergeant) and four squads. The exact number of soldiers could vary depending on casualties, reinforcements or the mission.
Recruitment
Under the Selective Service Act of 1948, all men were required to register for the draft at the age of 18. This allowed entry up to the age of 27. At the beginning of the US ground offensive in 1965, the number of conscripts made up less than a third of the army. Upon reaching the age of 18, they were required to register with the local draft board, fill out a classification questionnaire and undergo a pre-enlistment physical to determine their status and the possibility of deferment or exemption. Monthly quotas were allocated to the more than 4,000 conscription offices. The system of deferments and exemptions was based on a variety of criteria, including physical qualifications, education, major employment, family hardship and religious beliefs.
Essential workers included police officers, firefighters, physicians, teachers, clergy and students of theology, and certain categories of scientists and engineers. Married men with or without children, post-secondary students, men caring for elderly parents, and other hardship cases were generally given lower priority for I-A status, but beginning in 1966, when the number of draftees was increased to 30,000 per month, such individuals were also called up. The peak year for conscription was 1966, when new divisions, brigades and support units were established and existing units were upgraded for deployment in Vietnam: 382,000 were drafted. After that it was well over 200,000 per year until it dropped off in 1970.
Within a few weeks of registering, the men had to complete a classification questionnaire to assess their fitness for service. A classification of I-A meant that they were eligible for conscription. I-C, I-D, I-O, I-S, I-W, and I-Y were deferments for police, ROTC, conscientious objectors, high school students, conscientious objectors doing civilian work, or those drafted only in the event of a declaration of war. I-A, I-B and I-S were exemptions for critical occupations, farm workers and students. III-A was an exception for cases of extreme hardship or children. IV-A, IV-B, IV-C, IV-D, and F applied to persons with prior military service or a single surviving son, government officials, resident aliens who were not required to serve, clergymen or theology students, and the physically or mentally unfit.
Enlistment was for two years, followed by four years in the Ready Reserve after leaving active duty. Men who volunteered for three years in the regular Army reported to local Army recruiting offices. They could select their MOS (Military Occupation Specialty) based on their scores on the Armed Forces Classification Test (AFCT). The test results assessed aptitude in areas such as clerical, electronics, general maintenance, mechanical maintenance and technical specialist. Most important was the score in General Technical (GT), which is comparable to an IQ. An infantryman had to achieve a minimum GT score of 70, a Special Forces soldier 100 and an officer candidate 110.
Many blacks and Hispanics volunteered to join the Airborne, either because they could prove themselves there or simply because they could send extra money home to their families. The GI Bill, which could be used to pay for a college education upon completion of active duty, was a major motivator for many, regardless of ethnicity or social status. Volunteers could enlist under the Delayed Entrance Program, even if they were still in high school, and delay their entry for up to six months. The deferment period did not count against their service obligation, but did count against the time needed for promotion. Before being called up, they had to undergo a medical examination, which was repeated when they entered the service to ensure that they still met the requirements. There was also a buddy program where two or more friends could enlist and be guaranteed to complete at least BCT (Basic Combat Training) and perhaps AIT (Advanced Individual Training) together if they had the same MOS.
Training Enlisted men The basic training lasted 8 weeks and was used for firearms training, orientation about the army, the legal system to which they were now subject, the Code of Conduct, which governed their behavior in combat and as prisoners, and the General Orders, which defined the requirements of guard duty. They also underwent fitness training and received instruction in first aid. There were endurance runs, circuit training and weight training exercises. Also quite common were the Army Daily Dozen 12 exercises each such as side bends, toe touches, side straddle jump, windmill, squats, flutter kicks, crunches, lunges, 8-fold push-ups or running on the spot.
The physical contact confidence training included obstacle and confidence exercises, as well as several hours of combat training with the bayonet and eight hours of close combat training. Individual tactical training included day and night movement techniques and camouflage. Two full weeks were devoted to firearms training, assembly and disassembly, care and cleaning, zeroing, shooting at known distances and combat shooting. The latter was known as Trainfire I and consisted of the shooter firing at targets while standing, kneeling, crouching, prone and in the trench. A further eight hours were devoted to conducting combat shooting as a group and a close combat course in which two trainees covered each other with live ammunition.