The Ming dynasty (1368–1644) of China was known for its advanced and cultured society. The culture of the Ming dynasty was deeply rooted in traditional Chinese values, but also saw a flourishing of fine arts, literature, and philosophy in the late 15th century.
During this time, the government played a stronger role in shaping culture, requiring the use of Zhu Xi's interpretation of Neo-Confucianism in civil service examinations and promoting "proper" art in literature and painting. Despite this, some historians view the Ming era as a period of monotony and mediocrity. However, the Ming dynasty was actually a time of great creativity, particularly in its final century. Intellectuals of this time sought self-realization through anti-rationalist individualism, as seen in the teachings of Wang Yangming, and pursued wisdom through the cultivation of knowledge of one's own mind.
During the early Ming period, painting and calligraphy were heavily influenced by past styles, particularly those of the Song dynasty, but were also transformed in a creative manner. The court painting academy, which was revived in the 1420s and 1430s, focused on the genre of "flowers and birds". This genre was dominated by renowned masters such as Bian Jingzhao (early 15th century) and Lin Liang (late 15th century). Meanwhile, landscape painting, which was more popular among independent artists, saw the rise of the Wu School led by founder Shen Zhou and the Zhe school, with Dai Jin as its most prominent representative. In the 16th century, there was a prevalence of imitating traditional techniques and subjects in painting. Lü Ji stood out in the "flowers and birds" genre for his mastery. Along with the aforementioned artists, Tang Yin, Wen Zhengming, and others also gained recognition during the Ming period. One of the defining characteristics of this period was the fusion of painting and calligraphy, with works from the 15th century onwards containing an equal balance of both art forms.
During the late 14th and early 15th centuries, there was a prevalent tendency among literary and journalistic works to imitate old patterns. This was particularly evident in the works of the "adherents of old literature", such as Song Lian, Liu Ji, Yang Shiqi, and other politicians and scholars. In the Ming period, a variety of literary works were produced, including fiction, science, and practical texts. The most notable and representative works of this period were multi-volume encyclopedic works and anthologies. While works written in classical Chinese were primarily intended for the gentry, colloquial literature and drama had a much wider audience among literate Chinese with less education. One of the most famous novels of the Ming period, Jin Ping Mei, was published in 1610 and is considered the fifth of the great Chinese novels, following the "Four Classic Novels". Two of these classics, Water Margin and Journey to the West, were also written during the Ming period.
The Ming dynasty saw the emergence of four-act zaju plays, which were popular during the previous Yuan era, but the more popular plays were the multi-act chuanqi plays, which underwent significant changes in their accompanying music until the kunqu style became dominant. In terms of imagery, Ming dramatists were on par with novelists. One of the most renowned plays in Chinese history, The Peony Pavilion, was written by Tang Xianzu, a dramatist from the end of the Ming era.
Among the architectural marvels of the Ming dynasty, the most significant ones include the imperial residence—the Forbidden City, the Temple of Heaven complex in Beijing, the set of imperial tombstones in the Ming tombs, and last but not least, the Great Wall of China.
Calligraphy Early and Middle Ming period
During the first decades of the Ming dynasty, the imperial court highly esteemed and valued leading calligraphers. Some notable names among them were Song Ke (1327–1387), Shen Du (1357–1434), and Shen Can (1379–1453). The emperors themselves also held a deep appreciation for calligraphy. The Yongle Emperor () was particularly fond of it and even designated the style of the two Wangs (Wang Xizhi and his son Wang Xianzhi from the 4th century) as the official script. His successor, the Hongxi Emperor, was renowned for his calligraphy skills and was often compared to Emperor Taizong of Tang (). In the mid-1420s, the following Ming emperor, the Xuande Emperor (), restored the Imperial Academy of Painting and Calligraphy in Beijing, which then set the standard for art in the first half of the Ming period.
In the mid-fifteenth century, there was a decline in royal interest in calligraphy. The focus of artistic activity shifted to southeastern China during the mid-Ming period. This led to the emergence of new trends in calligraphy among the artists and literati of wealthy cities such as Jiangnan, particularly Suzhou and Songjiang. While Ming calligraphers were influenced by the styles of the old masters and often referenced them, they tended to only adopt the form without delving deeply into the substance.
Some notable calligraphy masters from Jiangnan include Zhang Bi (1425–1488) from Songjiang, who specialized in "crazy conceptual writing" in the style of Tang calligraphers Zhang Xu and Huaisu, and Li Dongyang (1447–1516), a grand secretary who was renowned for his seal script and also excelled in clerical script.
In the second half of the 15th century, under Shen Zhou, calligraphers from Suzhou revived the styles of the Northern Song masters. Shen Zhou was not only an excellent painter, but also a skilled calligrapher. He based his conceptual script on the style of the Northern Song calligrapher Huang Tingjian, using plump and rounded strokes that were written with a sense of haste. This style was also followed by Shen's student Wen Zhengming. Another influential figure in the calligraphy world at the time was Wu Kuan (), Minister of Rites, who followed the style of another Northern Song artist, Su Shi. During this period, the accompanying inscriptions on literati paintings held a significance similar to the paintings themselves. Calligraphy was often the primary focus, with painting being added as a secondary element.
Zhu Yunming (1460–1526) and Wen Zhengming were both members of the younger generation in Suzhou. Zhu Yunming was the grandson of the renowned scholar and calligrapher Xu Youzhen, and the son-in-law of another esteemed calligrapher, Li Yingzhen (). He was particularly skilled in small regular script, but it was his "crazy conceptual script" that earned him the most admiration, which he turned to after failing his examinations. His friends believed that Zhu Yunming's impulsive personality was reflected in his highly expressive calligraphy.
Wen Zhengming was a master of poetry, calligraphy, and painting. Despite failing the civil service examinations ten times, he was able to support himself through his art. He excelled in small regular script and seal script in calligraphy, but also studied and practiced other styles. He was influenced by famous calligraphers such as Zhao Mengfu. Many of his works have been preserved. Wen Zhengming had numerous students and followers, including his sons Wen Peng and Wen Jia, who were both skilled painters known for their delicately colored landscapes. Wen Peng gained recognition for his conceptual script and became famous for his seal carving. Another student of Wen Chengming was the painter Chen Chun, who was also known for his conceptual script in calligraphy.
Late Ming period
The theory and practice of late Ming calligraphy was heavily influenced by Dong Qichang (1555–1636) of Songjiang, a renowned scholar who excelled in literary composition, painting, and calligraphy from a young age. He was not only a prominent theorist of painting, but also wrote about the history of calligraphy, placing the masters of his Songjiang region above those of Suzhou. Dong emphasized the importance of studying works from the Eastern Jin (4th century) and Tang (7th–9th centuries), particularly the Wangs, but did not advocate for direct imitation of their styles. Instead, he encouraged a thorough analysis of their most significant techniques.
In the second half of the 16th century, there were several important Songjiang calligraphers, including Chen Jiru, a versatile artist and collector who was a friend of Dong Qichang, and Xu Wei, a pioneer of individual artists in the Qing dynasty. Xu Wei was known for his "flower and bird" paintings and also wrote calligraphy in the "crazy conceptual script", which had a style similar to abstract painting. In the first half of the 17th century, Chen Hongshou, a calligrapher and professional painter specializing in figure painting, gained recognition for his unique expression, which continued to be admired in the years to come.
The last generation of Ming calligraphers had distinct and unique styles. Contemporary critics, as well as the calligraphers themselves, used the term qi to describe the innovative calligraphy of the period. This term can be translated as "unusual" or "strange", and it refers to the radical deviation from traditional norms of composition and handwriting. One notable calligrapher of this time was Wang Duo (1592–1652), who claimed that his style was inspired by the work of classical masters. Despite the seemingly chaotic appearance of his writing, Wang Duo's personal and inventive style aligns with Dong Qichang's belief that calligraphy should not simply copy, but rather creatively transform the patterns of the past.
Painting The Ming era was significant in preserving a large number of paintings by renowned masters, as well as thousands of works by lesser-known artists. In contrast, the Song era only has a few surviving original works by well-known artists, and none from the Tang era. Ming painters were known for their diverse styles, but they often drew inspiration from Tang patterns. Ming critics referred to this style as "Tang traditions", as it was considered more realistic compared to the philosophical and lyrical appearance of the Song period, and the formal and abstract appearance of the Yuan era.
Academy After the establishment of the Ming dynasty, the influence of southern artistic styles, seen as a reflection of the country's spirit and culture, grew. Concurrently, the practice of professional official art was revived within the imperial court. However, independent court painters held little significance during the early Ming period and worked independently. Notable figures among them include Ma Wan (mid-14th century) and Wang Fu (1362–1416), who were renowned for their bamboo ink paintings. They were succeeded by Xia Chang in the latter half of the 15th century.
The first Ming emperor, the Hongwu Emperor (), assembled a group of literati, painters, and calligraphers at the Belvedere of Literary Profundity. The main task assigned to the painters was to decorate the imperial palaces. It was not until the beginning of the Xuande Emperor's reign that the actual imperial painting academy (; huayuan) was established. This academy was named after the era of Xuande and is known as the Imperial Painting Academy of the Xuande era (; Xuande huayuan). Its model was based on the office of the same name that operated during the Song dynasty.
Early Ming painting was heavily influenced by the past, particularly the patterns of the Song dynasty. This restorationist movement was rooted in a conservative approach to the past, which was already evident in the painters of the previous Yuan period. The restorationist ideology was most prominently embodied in the painting academy, which was reinstated by the Xuande Emperor in the mid-1420s.