Arabs migrated to the Levant, encompassing modern-day Syria, Lebanon, Jordan, Palestine and Israel, from ancient time to the modern period. The Arab migrants hailed from various parts of the Middle East, particularly the Arabian Peninsula. In the 9th century BCE, the Assyrians made written references to Arabs among the inhabitants of Levant and Arabia.*
Several notable Arab kingdoms, peoples and principalities were established in the Levant since ancient times such as the Nabatean Kingdom in southern Levant 3rd century BCE, Itureans north of the Galilee in late Hellenistic period, in Palmyra Arabs alongside Arameans formed a major ethnic group of its native population. notable influential local Arab dynasties and kings also emerged from the Levant such as the Emesene dynasty in modern day Homs and the Roman emperor Philip the Arab.
Starting from late antiquity, several notable Arab tribes rose to prominence in the Levant such as Tanukhids whose main base during the time of their most famous ruler Queen Mavia was in AleppoBall, Warwick (2001), Rome in the East: The Transformation of an Empire, Routledge, p. 98-102 and the Ghassanids whose capital was in Jabiya.
Following the rise of the Rashidun Caliphate after Muhammad's death in 632 CE, Muslims captured Levant from the Byzantine empire, – known in Arabic as Bilād al-Shām – resulting in some settlement of Muslims from Arabia in urban areas. The conquest led to an urban depopulation in some regions, with some local residents fleeing, such as the Ghassanid Christian Arabs who fled to the Byzantine Anatolia, creating vacancies that Muslim migrants occupied. For the Jewish community, this marked the end of nearly 500 years of Roman rule and exile, as Caliph Umar allowed Jews to once again migrate and resettle back in Jerusalem..
The Umayyad era saw further settlement in the Levant, as the rulers aimed to maintain distinct tribal identities and manage demographics through population transfers. Estimates suggest that by the end of the 7th century CE, about 250,000 Arabs had settled in the Levant, a small minority among the native population. Later minor migrations across Arabs in the Middle East affected by political situations took place, some of which gave rise to prominent Druze dynasties such as banu Ma'an.
Despite having a substantial Muslim population in the Levant by 11th century CE, the Arabian Muslim migrants were only a small minority of this population, the vast majority of Muslims were indigenous converts. Genetic studies indicate a degree of genetic continuity between modern and Bronze Age levantines.
History and migrations
Arabs presence in the region under the Byzantines
Before the Muslim conquest, the Arab presence in the Levant mainly consisted of Bedouin tribes inhabiting the borderlands and southern desert regions, including the Negev desert, the Syrian Desert west of the Euphrates, and the area around Palmyra. In contrast, the cultivated inner regions and cities of Palestine were predominantly populated by Christians, Jews, and Samaritans. Local kingdoms fortified their borders against nomadic incursions, but despite these efforts, varying degrees of penetration occurred. Local fears and concerns about the Bedouin are reflected in both Talmudic and Patristic literature, with the latter documenting Arab raids and acts of violence against monks. By the 5th century, Arab tribes had settled near Jerusalem, as noted by Cyril of Scythopolis, who described Petros Aspabetos, a tribal chief from Mesopotamia, converting to Christianity and settling in camps east of Jerusalem, where he maintained good relations with the Christian authorities. Trade relations also existed, with Meccan caravans traveling north, and Arab sources note that the Prophet's ancestors, including his grandfather Hishim and father 'Abdallah, engaged in business in Gaza.
Arab sources depict Byzantine-allied tribes such as the Banu Judham and Banu Ghassan as concentrated in Provincia Arabia (later known as Palestina Tertia), encroaching over the Levant's borderlands and on the frontiers of the Roman and later Byzantine Empires. In one Arabic source, the region is referred to as "al-Takhim", a term borrowed from Hebrew and most certainly used by Jews. The Banu Judham, the main tribe inhabiting the deserts south of Palestine, are associated with Shuaib in Arab tradition. Their Christian influences were notable due to their Byzantine connections, and while some members of the Banu Wa'il branch were connected to Judaism, only a few actually converted. The Banu Lakhm, who mingled with the Banu Judham and were based in the northern Euphrates, also had a presence in Palestine. The Banu Ghassan, or Ghassanids, a large federation of tribes, were important Byzantine allies against other Arab tribes. Migrating in significant numbers to southern Syria and northern Transjordan, they established a vassal kingdom under Byzantine authority, with their center in Jabiya, a settlement located in the eastern Golan.
Rashidun era (632–661 CE)
The Rashidun Caliphate, under Abu Bakr and Umar ibn al-Khattab, ascended to power following the death of Muhammad in 632 CE, rapidly expanding through military campaigns and conquering the Levant. Within three years, the regions of Syria and Palestine were under Muslim control. Muslims from Arabia began settling in the towns of Syria right after the conquest. This settlement was however limited, primarily involving members of the original conquering armies. Additional tribesmen who immigrated mainly settled in abandoned parts of towns, rather than in rural areas or new camp cities, as happened in Iraq. The numbers of Arabs who settled in the eastern provinces is unknown, but it is assumed they were a small minority among the native population, the total which was Bernard Lewis estimates as a "Quarter of a million" towards the end of the first century of Islam.
While the Arabs caused less destruction during their conquest than the Persians had few decades earlier, part of the Levant's urban population fled upon the arrival of Muslim forces. This migration created vacancies that were later occupied by Arab Muslim migrants. Both Arab and Syrian sources provide evidence of this emigration. Residents of Damascus, and coastal cities such as Sidon, Arca, Byblos, Beirut fled their towns. The Romans inhabitants of towns like Baldah, Jabalah and Antartus similarly deserted. Antioch's residents were given the choice to stay and pay tax or leave, and many chose the latter. Archaeological evidence, including a notable reduction in Caesarea's urban area, suggests that large-scale migration and depopulation occurred, especially along the Levantine coast; some Syrian cities also experienced substantial size reductions. It appears that the citizens of Emesa also departed, as an Arab commander allocated the abandoned houses and lands to Muslim Arabs. Some sources report Muslims entered into agreements with residents of various towns, which included conditions requiring the locals to vacate certain properties to accommodate Muslim newcomers. Often, these agreements specified that townspeople were to relinquish half of their homes and churches for use as living spaces and mosques. The abandonment of urban properties—whether due to flight, voluntary evacuation, or dispossession—led to their gradual occupation by Muslims.
Umar ibn al-Khattab honored a promise made by the Prophet Muhammad to Tamim al-Dari, an Arab from the Banu Lakhm tribe who converted to Islam and joined Muhammad in Medina, becoming one of his companions. In recognition of his service, the Prophet promised him lands in Hebron and Bayt 'Aynun (and, according to some sources, Bethlehem), along with a bill of rights. Umar ultimately fulfilled this promise, and Tamim seemingly served as the collector of land taxes (kharaj) in these areas. His descendants are reported to have continued residing there into the medieval period.
The Muslim conquerors established a primary military base in Jabiyah, an encampment in eastern Golan that was previously the capital of the Ghassanids. According to one source, the initial Muslim force that arrived in Jabiyah comprised about 24,000 soldiers. However, following the plague of Amwas, only 4,000 remained. It remains uncertain whether the remaining troops perished due to the plague or if many had fled and could potentially return. The Ghassanids, who preferred to remain Christian, were asked to pay land and poll taxes. Their leader refused, asserting Arab exemption from such taxes, and Umar ultimately conceded. Jabiyah was ultimately disregarded as a settlement site, as new arrivals favored cities like Damascus, Homs, and Aleppo. Unlike in Iraq and Mesopotamia, many, if not the majority, of the Muslim Arabs who came to Syria appeared to establish their homes in these urban centers, often occupying areas vacated by fleeing Christians.
Following the conquest, many Muslims acquired land grants and residences in various cities of the Levant. For example, Arab commander Amr ibn al-As owned multiple properties in Damascus. Arab commander Habib b. Maslama al-Fihri also settled in Damascus, where he had a dwelling overlooking the Barada River. In Homs, a general allocated vacant areas among Muslims: "divided it (the city) up among the Muslims in lots (khitat), so that they might occupy them, and he settled them also in every place whose occupants had evacuated it and in every abandoned yard." Additionally, some locals chose to surrender their homes to the Muslims and relocated along the Orontes River. In Tiberias, following the battle of Fahl and the fall of Damascus, commanders and their cavalry have reportedly settled in the town and the neighboring area. Later, additional reinforcements were distributed across nearby cities and villages. In Jerusalem, 'Umar settled troops in the city once its inhabitants had agreed to terms with him. Under 'Umar and 'Uthman, tracts of land in 'Asqalan were allocated to Muslims.
Following the Muslim conquest, settlement in the countryside of the Levant occurred, though it was less documented than in urban areas. Some Muslim troops were reportedly dispersed in towns and villages around the Jordan River. Reports indicate that abandoned agricultural lands were allocated to Muslims, with the condition that they restore the land to productivity and pay a tithe ('ushr) on the produce. Some references suggest that certain Arab immigrants had rural ties in Syria. For example, Saʽd ibn ʽUbadah, a leader of the Khazraj tribe, settled in Damascus but may have owned property in the Hauran. Mu'awiya, as governor, was directed by 'Uthman to settle Arab nomads (al-'Arab) in unclaimed or vacant lands far from urban areas, placing tribes like Banu Tamim in Rabiya, and the tribes of Qays and Asad in regions such as al-Mazihin and al-Mudaibir (near Raqqa). However, settlement in rural areas appeared limited, as most land available for Muslim settlers had been previously vacated, and few peasants fled during the conquest, likely due to economic reasons. Nomadic Arabs were also settled in vacant lands far from cities.
Umayyad era (661–750 CE) The Umayyad Caliphate, which succeeded the Rashidun in 661, established its center in Syria and designated Damascus as its capital, thereby transforming the region into a major metropolitan province. The Islamic leaders aimed to preserve the distinct identity and traditional lifestyle of the tribes, incorporating Islamic elements while preventing their assimilation into local populations. This approach applied to both the Arab tribes in the Arabian Peninsula or previously living on the borders of Palestine and those who joined as part of the Muslim army, maintaining their separate status from the local inhabitants. Most of them were soldiers, officials, townsmen, or Bedouins.