The Calicut–Portuguese conflicts were a series of military engagements between the Zamorins of Calicut and the Portuguese Empire during the 16th century in the Indian Ocean.
Background
After decades of exploratory efforts around the coasts of Africa, on May 17, 1498 Vasco da Gama reached Calicut in India.
Calicut was at this time the most important commercial city in the Malabar Coast. Arabs had established trade there about 600 years before and the city contained a great number of Muslim merchants from Egypt and Arabia or born locally, called Mappilas. They imported great quantities of valuable goods from the Middle-East through the Red Sea on large fleets and took back spices and local products, mostly pepper. These were bought at Alexandria in Egypt by Venetians, and redistributed to Europe. As a result of this trade, they were wealthy and highly influential in Calicut.Danvers, 1894, volume I, p. 48.
Pleased by the arrival of a new set of foreigners that would increase the trade in his city, the Zamorin offered to provide the Portuguese with as much cargo as they desired. Wary of Portuguese competition however, the powerful Muslim merchant community sought by every means to sabotage or interfere with the Portuguese and get them ejected from the country."The Moorish traders of Calicut having heard of the message sent from the King to the Portuguese, offering to supply them with the principal product of that country, and fearing that if they were once admitted to trade here they would limit themselves to that port, but would extend their commerce to other Indian marts, resolved to adopt every means to get them turned out of the country. This decision they then communicated to other Moorish merchants throughout the coasts of India; and with the view of at once carrying their purpose into effect they placed themselves in communication with the King's chief factor, who was the principal overseer of his exchequer, and with the King's gazil, or minister of justice." in Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 49-50. They warned the Zamorin against any treaties with the newcomers and slandered them, while key ministers of the raja were bribed.Danvers, 1894, volume I, p. 50. A merchant who had converted to Islam personally informed Gama aboard his flagship of the plot. Portuguese envoys to the Zamorin were subjected to constant delays but allowed to open a warehouse and trade in the city. The agent sent ashore by Gama to acquire spices were only supplied poor-quality products but he pretended not to notice and always paid great sums for the merchandise. The chief-minister of Zamorin having been bribed, he suggested that the Portuguese were spies and should therefore all be captured and executed.
Gama eventually managed to speak personally to the Zamorin and deliver a letter from King Manuel, though he was later detained for a few days and kept under watch by his chief of the royal guard. The Zamorin ordered the execution of the Portuguese along with the confiscation of their goods but then changed his mind and allowed Gama to depart with an apology.Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 51-59.
Despite numerous shortcomings, the expedition of Vasco da Gama was a resounding success. He was afforded a hero's welcome upon his return and the achievement was celebrated across Portugal with public thanksgivings, feasts and entertainments.Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 65-66. Among other things, he delivered to King Manuel a letter from the Zamorin which read:
First Luso-Malabarese War
Bombardment of Calicut Ten merchant ships in the harbour were seized and their crews were killed.Danvers, 1894, volume I, p. 70. The following morning Calicut was subjected to a fierce bombardment that continued for two days. A few small cannon onshore replied, but Portuguese firepower was overwhelming.Roger Crowley: Conquerors: How Portugal Forged the First Global Empire, Faber & Faber, 2015, p. 111. Shots tore into the city and demolished several buildings, including some of the Zamorin, who left Calicut. The death toll was estimated at over 500 or 600 persons, including one of the Zamorin's close notables and the bombardment was only ceased due to the damage that the recoil from the cannon was causing to the ships.R. S. Whiteway: Rise of Portuguese Power in India, Asian Educational Services, 1995, p. 87.
The position of the Portuguese was now serious, as the season to sail had nearly passed, Cabral had acquired almost no pepper at all, and they were at war with Calicut and without a friendly port in the region.
Alliances with Cochin and Cannanore
The Portuguese were informed by Gaspar da Gama that the Raja of Cochin was an unwilling vassal of Calicut seeking independence and would probably welcome an alliance. After the bombardment of Calicut therefore, Cabral directed his fleet to Cochin further south, and on the way there he had Pandarane attacked and two more trade ships captured.
He arrived at Cochin on December 24 and a treaty of commerce and alliance was signed with its raja, Unni Goda Varma. A trading post was opened on the city and Gonçalo Gil Barbosa left ashore as its director with six men. While at Cochin, Cabral was sought by deputations from the rulers of Cannanore and Kollam, who also wished to sign alliances with Portugal against the Zamorin. A number of Saint Thomas Christians from Cranganore also contacted Cabral and requested passage to Europe.Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 70-73.
On January 10, a large fleet from Calicut carrying 1500 men appeared off Cochin, however it hesitated in attacking the Portuguese ships. A storm overcame the ships as Cabral directed his vessels to attack, and they were driven out to sea. Five days later, the Portuguese called at Cannanore, signed a treaty with its raja and took in an ambassador before leaving for Portugal.
First Battle of Cannanore
Every outgoing fleet had to leave Lisbon before the arrival of vessels from India if they were to reach the subcontinent before the Monsoon set in. As such, King Manuel dispatched four ships under the command of the Galician noble João da Nova to trade in India, before Cabral had returned, based on the assumption that trade had been successfully been opened with Calicut.
Nova set sail from Belém on April 10, 1501, and on July 7 anchored his ships at Mossel Bay near the Cape of Good Hope. A message was found in a shoe hanging from a tree, left there a month prior by one of Cabral's captains, Pero de Ataíde. Among other things, Ataíde informed any commanders bound to India of the situation at Calicut and that safe-havens could be found at Cochin and Cannanore.
Nova arrived at Cannanore in November and was well received by the local raja. A number of agents were left ashore to purchase spices to be loaded on the way back to Portugal, while Nova departed for Cochin to collect those already acquired by the agents there left by Cabral the year before.
While on his way to Cochin, Nova engaged some vessels of Calicut, in sight of the city. At Cochin he found that the trading agents had been lodged by the Trimumpara in his own palace for security reasons and also been unable to sell their wares due to a boycott and therefore been unable to secure the necessary money to buy spices. Lacking the funds to do so himself, the captain-major negotiated with the Trimumpara to serve as his security for 1000 hundredweight of pepper, 450 of cinnamon, 50 of ginger and some bales of cloth.Danvers, 1894, volume I, pp. 74-76.
Before returning to Portugal, Nova still called at Cannanore first, but while in the harbour, he captured a wealthy trade ship from Calicut and was later attacked by a large fleet of the Zamorin, numbering about 180 vessels or more. The first Battle of Cannanore was noteworthy as the first time a line of battle was employed, and despite the numerical disparity, Nova was able to breach through the Zamorins fleet out to high seas, and before long the Hindu fleet was discouraged from seeking further combat due to the damage sustained by Portuguese artillery.
Second bombardment of Calicut
With the return of Cabral to Portugal, King Manuel was informed that opposition to the Portuguese was mounting, hence after the small fleet of Nova, King Manuel decided to dispatch an even larger armada of 20 well-armed ships.Diffie, 1977, p. 198. Cabral however was sidelined for failing to secure trade diplomatically and command fell on Gama.
En route to Cannanore, the Portuguese intercepted a large trade ship coming from the Red Sea, and on board the Portuguese found 10 or 12 of the wealthiest merchants of Calicut, headed by Ioar Afanquy, chief agent of the Sultan of Cairo in Calicut.Whiteway, 1995, p. 91. After the ship was plundered therefore, Gama decided to make an example of the merchants for their part in instigating the riot at Calicut and the Zamorin against the Portuguese, hence the vessel was bombarded and sunk with all on board as retribution.Gaspar Correia: Lendas da Índia, 1858, book I, tome I,
At Cannanore, Gama received messages from the Zamorin requesting talks. He sailed to Calicut and demanded that the Muslims be expelled as a condition for peace. The Zamorin refused but proposed that bilateral relations be re-established and remade anew instead. At this juncture however, Gama was forwarded a number of letters which the Zamorin had written to the King of Cochin urging obedience and co-operation against the Portuguese.
Talks continued after this act of duplicity was uncovered but they quickly broke down, Gama had a number of Muslim merchants implicated in the massacre of the feitoria along with some fishermen hanged from the yard-arms, and Calicut was subjected to a new bombardment for two days. After over 400 heavy shots were fired Gama proceeded to Cochin but left Vicente Sodré behind with six carracks and a caravel to blockade Calicut.Crowley, 2015, pp. 130-135.
Ambush in the harbour of Calicut
The blockade of Sodré caused hardship at Calicut and the Zamorin dispatched a Brahmin to Cochin inviting Gama to continue talks.Crowley, 2015, pp. 136-138. Gama was impressed by the high status of the envoy, and as he expected to find the squadron of Sodré at Calicut he sailed there with just his flagship accompanied by a caravel. Upon arriving, however, Gama found Sodré to be missing, because he had left to resupply at Cannanore, and the caravel was sent to seek him.
Now that Gama was isolated, however, in the early hours of the following morning before daybreak his flagship was unexpectedly surrounded and fired upon by 70 to 80 armed oarships that the Portuguese watches had mistaken for fishing vessels. Their proximity prevented the Portuguese from firing their artillery, while a complete lack of wind prevented flight. Only the chance arrival of Sodré with his vessels brought in tow by oarships forced the withdrawal of the Zamorins fleet. Furious at this second act of duplicity under the guise of peace talks, Gama had a number of envoys from the Zamorin still in his flagship hanged and their bodies floated ashore in a canoe before returning to Cochin.
Naval battle of Calicut, 1503
After the second bombardment of Calicut, the Zamorin sought to gather a powerful fleet aimed at expelling the Portuguese from India. After arriving at Cochin, Gama gave the Trimumpara rich gifts and letters sent by King Manuel, and was informed by him that the Zamorin was preparing a large naval force under the command of Khawaja Kassein (Coja Cassem in Portuguese) and Khawaja Ambar (Cojambar in Portuguese) who was a famous privateer from Arabia and had come to Malabar to offer the Zamorin his services against the Portuguese.
The Trimumpara dispatched some boats to scout the waters around Calicut while Gama sent for Sodré. The Zamorin sent a Brahmin to Cochin to spy, however, he was denounced by Coje Bequi and the Brahmin was tortured before being sent back.