Acadian architecture, also known as Cadien architecture, is a traditional style of architecture used by Acadians and Cajuns.The Cajuns, also known as Acadians, reside mainly in Louisiana, in the Southern United States, and form an ethnic group closely linked to the Acadians. It is prevalent in AcadiaThe term Acadia is used to refer to the northern and eastern parts of the Canadian province of New Brunswick, as well as to more isolated localities in Prince Edward Island, Newfoundland and Labrador, and Nova Scotia. In a broader sense, the term "Acadia" is also used to refer to Acadian diaspora communities located in Quebec and the United States. People of Acadian descent are also found in France, the Falkland Islands, and the Antilles. Although not officially recognized, Acadia would constitute a nation by its language, culture, institutions, and symbols. and, by extension, is employed for architectural purposes in the place.

The settlement of Acadia was established in 1604; the architecture was influenced by French design but adapted to the local climatic conditions and materials. Subsequently, Indigenous construction techniques were employed, primarily to improve house insulation. During the deportation of the Acadians from 1755 to 1763, most Acadian structures were demolished. For several decades afterward, hastily constructed homes of poor quality were built. Despite improving living conditions, the architectural style remained relatively unchanged until the mid-19th century, when French influence declined and American and English influences began to emerge alongside the careers of the first Acadian architects.

The oldest surviving examples of Acadian architecture are the De Gannes-Cosby House and the Sinclair Inn/Soullard-Skene House in Annapolis Royal, dating back to the 1700s, but the majority of surviving historical Acadian architecture date back to the late-18th to early-19th century post-Deportation era. Increasingly, municipalities are preserving their heritage, with several buildings having been restored or reconstructed in seven historic villages. However, no comprehensive study has been conducted on Acadian architecture, making it challenging to define a typical Acadian style. Nevertheless, some research is being conducted on existing buildings or during archaeological excavations, and in recent years, several buildings have been constructed with these findings in mind.

Colonial architecture (1604–1755)

Early settlements

The first European settlers established themselves in Acadia in 1604 during the expedition of Pierre Dugua de Mons. The habitation on Saint Croix Island was founded, and a dozen houses were constructed and arranged to give the impression of a fort. The buildings were French-inspired, with their steep four-sided roofs. In 1605, following a harsh winter, the houses were demolished to salvage materials for the reconstruction of the Habitation at Port-Royal, which was rebuilt using the same architectural model.

Houses and farms In 1632, Acadia was revitalized with the arrival of Isaac de Razilly, Menou de Charnizay, and Nicolas Denys, along with 300 elite men and three Capuchins, who departed from Auray (Brittany) France. The architectural designs they developed were influenced by French designs, notably the timber-framed houses. Local materials were used, mainly wood and sometimes stone for foundations, while bricks were rare. By the late 17th century, Acadians had adopted indigenous techniques to insulate their homes. One such method was the poteaux en terre, which involved planting posts in the ground and binding them with small branches. This process made walls sturdier and created air pockets for better insulation. The interiors were coated with mud or clay to fill gaps, while small exterior planks completed the insulation. Chimneys were made similarly to walls but coated with mud and clay to prevent fires. The dovetail joint was subsequently introduced. The construction of basic shelters involved two distinct types of assembly.

Four types of houses were constructed in Acadia at the time. The first was the timber-frame house, the very first method used at the Sainte-Croix Habitation. Another popular type was the piece-sur-piece house, built with squared logs stacked on each other, allowing for inexpensive and quick construction. This method was mainly used by new families or in remote areas without sawmills. By 1688, all the houses in Port-Royal were built this way and covered with thatch or plank roofs. A third type of house was built of cob. It consists of a framework whose spaces are filled with bousillage or bauge, made of earth and straw, all held in place by posts called palissons or palots, installed horizontally between the framework posts.Several ancient texts mention 'bousillées' houses, which could be interpreted as timber-framed houses. This is a similar technique, with the main difference lying in the spacing between the posts. This technique originated in Upper Normandy and was likely imported by Abraham Dugas, who left Toulouse in 1640. His descendants disseminated the technique across various Acadian regions until the 19th century. At the turn of the 18th century, these houses were only paneled inside, leaving the bousillage and frame exposed outside. Some were coated with white clay on the exterior, a local invention. The fourth type of house was built with planks. Previously, it was thought that stone was rarely used in construction, but an unpublished study has revealed that stone and wood houses were common adaptations of French timber-framed houses. By 1704, Port-Royal had only one brick house, the Recollects' house, which was French-inspired.

Churches

The early Acadian churches were often constructed like houses and sometimes barns, exhibiting a combination of both architectural styles. They were characterized by a lack of bells and a reliance on drums or shells for summoning parishioners. At Port-Royal, the church used paper as a means of providing windows. However, this situation underwent a significant transformation around 1689, when Seigneur Richard Denys constructed his fort at Burnt Church. This fort was surrounded by a wooden palisade and several stone buildings, including the church. In approximately 1690, the Saint-Charles-des-Mines Church was constructed in Grand-Pré, which had surpassed Port-Royal in population. Recent excavations have revealed that the church's rectory was the only building in Acadia with a tiled roof, indicating its significance. Saint-Joseph-des-Mines Church was also renowned for its aesthetic appeal, featuring an interior adorned with wooden moldings.

Domestic architecture

Precarious habitat (1755–1784)

Maritime provinces

The deportation of the Acadians commenced in June 1755 with the fall of Fort Beauséjour to the British. Over the following years, numerous villages were destroyed, resulting in the termination of the prosperous, self-sufficient lifestyle that had previously existed. Until 1784, Acadians were persistently pursued by the British, and they were compelled to live without property titles.

The shelters and houses constructed during this period were hastily built. In 1761, Gamaliel Smethurst observed that after an attack on their village, the Acadians of Nipisiguit constructed shelters in two or three days. These houses were small, rectangular, and almost square, with a single room and three or four openings, including the door. They were heated by a masonry, a stone fireplace. The most prevalent architectural style was a piece-sur-piece construction, wherein squared wood pieces were joined using dovetail joints, a technique derived from American influences. Another prevalent style employed wood pieces joined by corner planks and a system of tenons and mortises. The floor was constructed from squared wood, occasionally comprising round logs or even packed earth. The roof was covered with shingles, and the walls were later clad in clapboards. The chimney could be constructed from fieldstone, wattle and daub, or flat stones bound with mortar. The chimney was typically situated in the center of the house, although when positioned on one of the gable walls, an exterior bakehouse was sometimes incorporated. Houses were inadequately insulated, with clay, moss, and cow dung serving as the primary insulation material. A loft, accessible via a ladder or occasionally a notched post, served as a storage area for hay and tools and, on occasion, as a boys' bedroom. In some instances, the first floor was partitioned off for the winter, with residents using the warmth of the loft.

Two characteristics emerged during this period to define Acadian houses: the headwall in the façade, which was one to one and a half meters high between the ground-floor windows and the cornice, and the gently sloping gable roof.

The principal tools employed during the construction process included the godendard (a large two-man saw),The "godendard" is a particularly large saw used by carpenters. a handsaw, an axe, a hewing axe, a two-handled knife, and a pocket knife. Nails were rarely used, except for instances involving shingles. Treenails, and oak dowels, are used instead to join the parts; even the hinges are made of wood.

The furniture was utilitarian, typically of a modest height and devoid of embellishments. It was typically crafted by the user, often from pine due to its workability and abundance. Notches were made on the bench of the window frame to serve as a sundial. The fireplace served for heating, cooking, and often for lighting, which could also be done with tinplate or bowls filled with cod or elderberry oil.

Magdalen Islands The Magdalen Islands, which now belong to Quebec, were colonized in successive waves, mainly by Acadians between 1755 and 1792. As was the case elsewhere, the first houses were provisional and were hastily constructed to replace them later with more comfortable houses. However, these houses served for a longer period than was anticipated and retained a rustic character for approximately a century. The initial construction of the houses was accomplished with the use of round logs, which were subsequently replaced by planks. These planks were caulked with moss and clay. The houses exhibited dovetail joints at the corners, although some houses, designated as "corner houses," were constructed with planks joined with wooden plugs. In subsequent periods, houses were constructed with planks split in two and installed vertically. These were tongue-and-groove structures, in which a groove was cut along the length of both sides of the plank and a lath was installed in one of the grooves, allowing the planks to be joined together. The houses were generally square, averaging six meters per side but no more than ten meters. Frequently, a lean-to was added, a smaller room built in the style of the house, used as a kitchen, dining room, and living room. A ladder led to the attic, where seeds and equipment were stored. A flat-roofed drum was often constructed at the entrance of the lean-to, serving both as a storage space and protection against the winter wind.

Louisiana

Approximately 3,000 Acadians were deported to Louisiana. Over a few years, they adopted elements of the Louisiana Creole culture and became the largest group, with other immigrants assimilating into them. They are now known as Cajuns. Some established ranches, or vacheries, while most remained small farmers. They constructed temporary shelters, supported by poles planted in the ground (techniques of poteau-sur-sole or poteau en terre), with roofs covered in palm leaves. The second generation of houses was generally of the pieux debout type, with cypress planks installed vertically in a trench, while the roof was French-inspired and covered with bark. The floor was always made of packed earth.

Recovery (1784–1840)

Maritime provinces