Eunuchs (in Greek ) were an extremely important and numerous category of courtiers of the Byzantine Emperor. Their main purpose was to serve the emperor and empress in the chambers of the Great Palace; only they could be fully trusted by the emperor. Because of their unfettered access to the emperor's person, the eunuchs, who had their own court hierarchy, controlled the administration of the state for most of Byzantine history.
Eunuchs were highly privileged in Byzantine society. Although they could not occupy the imperial throne and their legal rights were limited in some respects, eunuchs otherwise had very attractive prospects. Although the main source of eunuchs in Byzantium was slaves from neighboring countries, it was not uncommon for the younger sons of noble families to be castrated. For example, two of the sons of Emperor Romanos I Lekapenos were castrated — Theophylact, who later became Patriarch, and Basil, the de facto ruler of the empire in 945-985. In general, eunuchs had the opportunity to excel in any professional field. Beginning in the 6th century, eunuchs held high positions at the head of the Byzantine army and navy, although they rarely achieved success in this field.
Eunuchs were much rarer in the lower ranks of society.
Legal status
Historically, the practice of converting eunuchs has been forbidden since Roman times. The first known prohibition was issued under Domitian (81-96) and confirmed under Nerva (96-98). Emperor Trajan (98-117) extended Sulla's law de sicariis et veneficiis to physicians engaged in the trade, but there were no fewer eunuchs. Since emperors had authority only within the empire, eunuchs could come from abroad, creating a lucrative trade. The value of a eunuch under 10 years of age was 30 solidus, 50 solidus if the eunuch was over 10 years of age, and 60 if he possessed any art. Eunuchs were a valuable and always welcome gift to the emperor.Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — P. 165. Under Constantine the Great (306-337) the old laws against eunuchs were renewed, but even then they were poorly enforced, and under his successor Constantius II (337-361) the eunuch priest Eusebius, at the head of numerous young eunuch cubicularii, was an imposing force at court. The influence of Eusebius, who recognized only the authority of the emperor, was so great that when he turned to Arianism, the religious policy of the whole empire was changed. Eunuchs, whispering "with their ingratiating and, whatever their age, eternally childish voices" accusations against the popular general Ursicinus, made the historian Ammianus Marcellinus nostalgic for the emperor Domitian, who fought against "such abominations".Аммиан Марцеллин. Деяния, book XVIII, part 4.Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — P. 166.
In the 5th century, Emperor Leo I (457-474) forbade trade only with eunuchs who were citizens of the empire, resulting in a flood of barbarian eunuchs into Byzantium. Emperor Justinian I (527-565), in view of the high mortality rate during such operations — an average of three out of 90 operated on survived, dedicated a special novella "142" to eunuchs. It confirmed the previous laws and established that the perpetrators and accomplices of the operation would be punished according to the law of talion, and if they survived the operation, they would be sent to hard labor and their property would be confiscated.Dieter S. Lobpreis des Eunuchen. — München: C.H.Beck, 1994. — P. 15. If the perpetrator of the operation was a woman, she was punished by confiscation of property and exile. Eunuch slaves were entitled to emancipation. The novella did not apply if the operation was performed for medical reasons. For the barbarian peoples, the trade of eunuchs continued to be a profitable occupation, and Procopius of Caesarea mentions it as an important source of revenue for the kings of the Abasgoi. However, when Justinian, through his ambassador, the castrated Abasgian Euphratius, ordered these people to abandon the trade, they took the ban as an opportunity to revolt against the Empire.Прокопий Кесарийский. Война с готами, VIII, 3, pp. 15-21. These measures did not change the situation, and Emperor Leo VI's (886-912) novel "60" forced a relaxation of the previous legislation, replacing the law of talion for performing castration with a fine of 10 pounds of gold and exile for 10 years; if the perpetrator held a position at court, he was dismissed. Like Justinian, Leo VI did not prohibit the operation for medical reasons, nor did he prohibit it for free citizens. The law did not specify at what age the person to be operated on could give his consent, and in any case his parents could give their consent ex post facto.Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — P. 167.
There are several types of eunuchs' classification that existed in Byzantine legal and non-legal literature. From a legal point of view, there were two categories of eunuchs:Its author was probably the sixth-century jurist Theophilus.Dieter S. Lobpreis des Eunuchen. — München: C.H.Beck, 1994. — P. 11. (in Ancient Greek — ), that is, those who had completely lost their reproductive capacity as a result of surgical intervention (in Ancient Greek —), whose inability to reproduce was the result of disease. Since the inability to reproduce was guaranteed for the former and only probable for the latter, these categories had different legal statuses. Thus, unlike could not marry, adopt children, or bequeath property. However, Leo VI considered it unjust to deprive ἐκτομομοι of the joys of fatherhood, and restored this right to them by his novel "26".Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — pp. 167-168.
Political impact
The Byzantine eunuchs formed a powerful and well-organized entity (in Ancient Greek — ), and in the structure of the Byzantine bureaucracy a special category of titles and ranks was reserved for them. Eunuchs could hold almost all public offices, and in the equality of titles eunuchs had an advantage over the "bearded ones".Since about Emperor Constant II, the fashion for beards, which had fallen into oblivion in the 4th-6th centuries, was revived. In the Byzantine view, beards were a sign of masculinity, distinguishing real men from eunuchs.The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium: in 3 vol. / ed. by Dr. Alexander Kazhdan. — N. Y.; Oxf.: Oxford University Press, 1991. — P. 274. — . The origin of the custom of having eunuchs at court is attributed to Eastern influence. However, the female part of the palace (gynaeceum) required numerous servants, and the implied resemblance of eunuchs to sexless angels and seraphs made them indispensable for imperial ceremonies. Given the frequent coups d'état, the fact that eunuchs posed no danger as potential pretenders to the throne was important.See, for example, the remark of Evagrius Scholasticus on the conspiracy of Amantius that preceded the accession of Justin I (518-527): "A very strong man was then also the keeper of the imperial bedchambers, Amantius. Since he himself could not rule the Roman Empire, he wanted to place the crown of autocratic power on Theocritus, a man devoted to him".Евагрий Схоластик, Церковная история, IV.2 Nevertheless, the role of the head of the court eunuchs, who held the title of Praepositus sacri cubiculi, was extremely important.Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — pp. 276-277. The influence of the eunuchs was determined by their proximity to the emperor, their influence on whom the emperor would communicate with and when, and from whom he would learn of important events first. Eunuchs were also known to charge fees for audiences and personal appointments.Hopkins K. Conquerors and Slaves. — Cambr.: Cambridge University Press, 1978. — pp. 77-78. — .
In the 4th century, the eunuchs Eusebius under Constantius II and Probatius under Jovian (363-364) were agents of Arian influence at court. At the beginning of the reign of Arcadius (395-408), Eutropius, the only eunuch who had attained the rank of consul, enjoyed the greatest authority at court. The public outrage caused by this appointment eventually cost Eutropius his head. The sole reign of Arcadius' son, Theodosius II (408-450), which began at the age of 7, was under the constant supervision of eunuch tutors who had served his father. The most famous of these was Chrysaphius, who came to prominence in the 440s and took an active part in the struggle between his sister and Theodosius' wife for influence over the emperor. In the religious disputes of his time, Chrysaphius sided with the heretic Eutyches against the patriarch Flavian. From the story of Priscus of Panias it is known that in 449 Chrysaphius was entrusted with a responsible mission to organize an attack on the leader of the Huns, Attila. Delicate missions were entrusted to eunuchs and later emperors — Flavius Zeno (474-491) Urbikia, Anastasius I (491-518) Kalopodius and Amantius. Emperor Justinian II (685-695, 705-711), who lost his throne and his nose largely due to the actions of his treasurer Stephen Persus, did not lose confidence in the eunuchs after his return to power and continued to entrust them with important missions.Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — pp. 177-178.
Thereafter, eunuchs are constantly mentioned in high positions, performing responsible tasks, or as participants in conspiracies. A slight decrease in references to them is noted during the reign of Basil I (867-886), who, as a rare exception, held the position of parakimomenon, traditionally reserved for eunuchs, under Michael III (842-867). Under his son, Leo VI (886-912), the eunuchs regained their influence at court. In the complex conflict over the marriages of Emperor Leo VI, the eunuch Samonas helped him in his struggle with the Patriarch Nicholas Mystikos, who was rewarded with the position of parakimomenon, which had been vacant since the time of Basil I. He was succeeded in this function by Constantine the Paphlagonian, who, together with his relative, the eunuch Constantine Gongyles, placed at the head of the fleet, supported the commander Leo Phocas against Romanos I Lekapenos (920-940). Among the large number of eunuchs who appeared during the minority of Constantine VII (913-959), the most notable is the illegitimate son of Romanos I, Basil, who was the actual ruler of the state under three successors of Constantine VII and was deposed from power only in 985 by Basil II (976-1025). Prominent eunuchs of the tenth century included Joseph Bringas,His relative was Michael VI Stratioticus, who reigned 100 years later.Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — P. 183. who intrigued against Nicephorus Phocas (963-969), and Christopher, mentioned by Liutprand of Cremona in connection with the unfriendly reception he gave to the embassy of Emperor Otto II.Guilland R. Recherches sur les institutions byzantines. — Berlin: Akademie-Verlag, 1967. — pp. 179-184.