Carlos de Villegas (1 March 1824 – 7 January 1897) was a Bolivian military officer, statesman, and politician who served during the War of the Confederation, the Peruvian–Bolivian War of 1841–42, and the War of the Pacific. He was a noted war hero in Bolivia, serving in several posts throughout his lifetime, including as Minister of War. He was the father of Bolivian General Carlos Manuel de Villegas.
Starting his military career at a young age, Villegas spent a large part of his youth either fighting in international wars or in civil wars. He lived through the presidencies of Manuel Isidoro Belzu and José María Linares, times in which he took arms in favor of the current government in opposition to insurrections. However, he did favor the government of Linares, whom he supported and helped take power in 1857. Remaining loyal to Linares for most of his administration, once the dictator had lost most support and was betrayed by his Minister of War, José María de Achá, Villegas turned on his former benefactor.
Under Achá, Villegas flourished and ascended to the rank of general, occupying high positions in the military and government. However, he was exiled from Bolivia when Mariano Melgarejo took power in 1864. Joining the revolution against the aforementioned caudillo, Villegas joined the ranks of Agustín Morales and Tomás Frías in what seemed a sacrosanct cause to oust an unpopular tyrant. Despite his inclination to support Frías, he was unable to support the President when he was surrounded at the Palacio Quemado and forced to resign in 1876. Hilarión Daza, now President, appointed Villegas as Minister of War. During his tenure, he put down the violent uprising led by Andrés Ibañez, whom he knew personally.
Later, he had a significant role during the War of the Pacific, in which he was given command of a division. Seeing action against the Chileans at the Battle of San Francisco, he was wounded and captured. After the end of the war, he continued his political and military career, occupying several high posts in the last years of his life until his retirement in the early 1890s. His long career, both political and military, shed light onto a turbulent period of Bolivian history.
Early life and military career
Birth and youth Villegas was born in San Antonio de Morayo, Chichas Province, on March 1, 1824. His parents were José Fausto Villegas and Agustina Aramayo de Villegas. He spent his early years in that province, where he received a very limited education, as schools were scarce in those times and mainly located in the capitals. While still in his youth, driven by his adventurous character, he enlisted in the army and quickly distinguished himself. On April 22, 1838, he was promoted to cadet as a reward for his good conduct.
War of the Confederation and Ingavi
As a cadet, he participated in the campaign of the Peru–Bolivian Confederation. Villegas stood out in the Battle of Buin on January 6, 1839, as well as in the Battle of Yungay, which took place in the same month and year. For his bravery and excellent behavior during this unsuccessful war for Bolivia, he received an honor medal for the 'Pacification of Peru'. Provisional President José Miguel de Velasco promoted the young cadet to the rank of ensign on May 20, 1839. Later, when Velasco was proclaimed constitutional president, Villegas was promoted again and received the rank of lieutenant on September 20, 1840. As a Lieutenant, he participated in the defensive campaign following Agustín Gamarra's invasion, led by General José Ballivián, contributing to the victory at Ingavi on November 18, 1841. After this victory, Villegas was promoted to the rank of captain by Provisional President Ballivián on November 21, 1841, just three days after the victory. At the same time, he was decorated with an honor medal and declared a "benefactor of the homeland in a heroic and eminent degree." Among those who marched to Peru after Ingavi was Villegas, staying in the neighboring nation until the treaties between Bolivia and Peru were concluded.
Villegas participated in several battles that would be significant in Bolivia's military history. In Iruya and Montenegro, the Bolivians defeated the Argentinians, and in Yanacocha and Ingavi, they defeated the Peruvians. Impressing his superiors in each of these actions, Villegas was considered an exemplary military officer. He was promoted to major on November 18, 1845, with his commissions signed by President Ballivián. He rose to the rank of commander on May 31, 1848, with his commissions signed by President Velasco. On October 18, 1848, he participated in the Battle of Quirpinchaca, and a few days later, on December 6, in the Battle of Yamparáez. In both encounters, Villegas defended Velasco's regime against the uprisings of leaders attempting to seize power from the aforementioned. General Manuel Isidoro Belzu managed to seize the presidency in the fields of Yamparáez. Supported by the lower classes of the population, to whom he showered favors, Belzu opposed the aristocrats of the country. Villegas joined Belzu's enemies and, throughout the time the belcista party governed, he remained among the insurgents, fighting in support of José María Linares. The civil war that unfolded in Bolivia during this period is one of the most tenacious and bloody in Bolivian history.
Internal chaos
Conflict between belcistas and linaristas
Triumph of Linares and Villegas' death sentence Belzu and Linares were the protagonists of this civil war. Bolivia was essentially a field of conspiracy or struggle; the educated and aristocratic part sided with Linares, while the popular masses with the artisans sided with Belzu. The conflict did not remain solely within Bolivia's borders. The borders, where those involved sought refuge, were also a theater of operations during this turbulent period. Belzu distrusted everyone, pitting the lower classes against the upper classes, attacking and humiliating those who, due to their wealth and family pride, formed the aristocracy. Linares had the support of university students and members of elite families, presenting himself determined to defeat caudillismo, investing all his fortune and that of his political allies in a cause considered sacred, and in whose triumph he and his supporters saw the regeneration of the homeland seemingly sunk in the mire. This idea gave rise to the name of the linarista Generator Party.
In the midst of this war, Linares granted promotions and ranks that were not truly valid because they did not emanate from an established or organized authority. However, they had a certain hope of being validated once the cause, which constantly gained popular sympathy, triumphed. Villegas was rewarded with the ranks of lieutenant colonel and colonel. But when Linares' cause triumphed and the ranks received during the struggle were confirmed, he submitted his resignation.
Despite his resignation, Linares and the Minister of War, Gregorio Perez, still conferred the ranks onto Villegas. Prior to Linares' triumph, Bolivia was governed by General Jorge Córdova, who was reputed to have a kind character for saving "so many victims from the gallows." However, as the successor of Belzu, his father-in-law, and following Belzu's policies and instructions, insurrection continued to simmer in Bolivia, and conspirators appeared increasingly resolved. Bolivia persisted just as Belzu had depicted it in an official document when he said: "Successive revolutions, revolutions in the South, revolutions in the North, revolutions fostered by my enemies, led by my friends, combined in my own abode... Holy God!... condemned me to a perpetual state of combat". Indeed, the political crisis was a bloody struggle between the government and the increasingly powerful public opinion in favor of Linares. Córdova was in La Paz after declaring amnesty on January 31, 1856, when it became known that a group of conspirators was actively working to disrupt order: "Based on a report made by two sergeants, Colonel Celada caught Colonel Villegas in the act of conspiracy against the government on March 4, along with other leaders, officers, and sergeants, proclaiming, as in previous uprisings, the presidency of Linares. Arrested and brought to trial, they were sentenced to capital punishment. However, guided by the characteristic clemency of General Córdova, the government commuted this sentence to imprisonment for eight of the conspirators. The remaining three, Colonel Villegas, Major Eduardo Dávalos, and Sergeant Manuel Angulo, were to be executed on March 8".
The people of La Paz were deeply perturbed and utilized every means at their disposal to save them. As the condemned approached the gallows, the tone of pleas changed to threats, reaching the point where the crowd armed themselves to prevent the execution. Two young Cochabamba citizens, Don Cupertino Méndez and Don Pedro Nernuldes, particularly stood out in this cause. The danger of a clash between the people and the armed forces was imminent. Córdova himself observed this scene from the palace balconies, where "the popular roar drowned out all other noise".
As was noted by Luis M. Guzmán in Historia de Bolivia, the events that transpired that day were almost commonplace in Bolivia. Although approving of the clemency shown, he still condemns the belcista party:In the end, compassion triumphed over the severity of military laws. The condemned showed bravery and composure as they marched to the gallows. General Córdova, moved by these events, not only granted them pardon but had them brought to the palace; he embraced them and set them free. Such generosity should have been acknowledged and appreciated, but administrative aptitude does not originate from the sources of political sentimentality. Córdova was the continuation of a bastard government condemned by national opinion, and that illegitimacy was not purged by the noble impulses of an individual.Another witness to those events said the following about Villegas' behavior throughout the ordeal:I was assured that one of the most uncompromising linaristas supporters had been captured, and this was Colonel, still young, Carlos de Villegas. I had very good news about this military officer and wanted to verify the great personal courage that had been so praised to me. I put myself in observation, leveraging my position and connections. It is not uncommon among the Bolivian military for these bursts of courage that decide a battle... however, it has astonished me to see a young man, full of hopes, in the midst of a brilliant career, sentenced to death, calm and resolved, showing no desire to live, awaiting death as one awaits relief after a hot day in our Yungas, for the night to temper the heat of a summer sun. This is how I saw Villegas, through reports during his time in prison and during the journey to the gallows, proud, without affectation, calm without pretense; he had a very well-tempered soul, and perhaps that is why his philosophical ideas were daring and unshakable, as he demonstrated later.
Fall of Linares