Brushtalk is a form of written communication using Literary Chinese to facilitate diplomatic and casual discussions between people of the countries in the Sinosphere, which include China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.
History Brushtalk was first used in China as a way to engage in "silent conversations". Beginning from the Sui dynasty (581 to 618), the scholars from China, Japan, Korea, and Vietnam could use their mastery of Classical Chinese to communicate without any prior knowledge of spoken Chinese.
The earliest and initial accounts of Sino-Japanese brushtalk date back to during the Sui dynasty. By an account written in 1094, minister Ono no Imoko was sent to China as an envoy. One of his goals there was to obtain Buddhist sutras to bring back to Japan. In one particular instance, Ono no Imoko had met three old monks. During their encounter, due to them not sharing a common language, they held a "silent conversation" by writing Chinese characters on the ground using a stick.
The Vietnamese revolutionary Phan Bội Châu in 1905-1906 conducted several brushtalks with several other Chinese revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen and reformist Liang Qichao in Japan during his Đông Du movement. During his brushtalk with Liang Qichao, it was noted that Phan Bội Châu was able to communicate with Liang Qichao using Chinese characters. They both sat at a table and exchanged sheets of paper back and forth. However, when Phan Bội Châu tried reading what he wrote in his Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation, the pronunciation was unintelligible to Cantonese-speaking Liang Qichao. They discussed topics mainly involving the pan-Asian anti-colonial movement. These brushtalks later led to the publishing of the book, History of the Loss of Vietnam written in Literary Chinese.
During one brushtalk between Phan Bội Châu and Inukai Tsuyoshi:
About a hundred of Phan Bội Châu's brushtalks in Japan can be found in Phan Bội Châu's book, Chronicles of Phan Sào Nam (; chữ Hán: ).
There are several instances in the Chronicles of Phan Sào Nam that mentions brushtalks were used to communicate.
Pseudo-Chinese Taro Kono, during his visit to Beijing in 2019, tweeted his schedule, but only using Chinese characters (no kana) as a way of connecting with Chinese followers. While the text is not like Chinese nor is it like Japanese, it was fairly understandable by Chinese speakers. It is a good example of Pseudo-Chinese and how the two countries can somewhat communicate with each other with writing. The tweet resembled how brushtalks were used in the past.
Examples One famous example of brushtalk is a conversation between Vietnamese envoy Phùng Khắc Khoan and Korean envoy Yi Su-gwang meeting in Beijing to wish prosperity for the Wanli Emperor (1597). The envoys exchanged dialogue and poems between each other. These poems followed traditional metrics which was made up of eight seven-syllable lines (). It is noted by Yi Su-gwang that out of the 23 people in 's delegation, only one person knew spoken Chinese, meaning that the rest had to either use brushtalk or interpreters to communicate.
Two Poems in Presentation to the Envoys of Annam () – Korean question These poems were compiled in the eighth volume () of Yi Su-gwang's book, Jibongseonsaengjip ().
A Presentation to the Envoys of Annam, Part One Hanja:
Sino-Korean transcription:
Revised Romanization: Malli naejong jangnyeohyang Wonbing jungyeok algunwang Jebong handae sindongju Gongheon Juga gu Wolsang Sanchul ihyeong yosanggol Jijeung yeonggi sallyonghyang Jeukgeum Jungguk bongsinseong Cheonjae pungnyeom haeburyang Sino-Vietnamese transcription:
English translation: From a land of mists and plagues, they have come from ten thousand miles away Relying on skilled translation, paying respects to the king Presenting a newly cast bronze pillar from the Han Dynasty Offering tribute, presenting the ancient attire of Việt Thường from the Zhou's lineage Mountains yield strange forms, abundant are the bones of elephants The earth steams with spiritual energy, producing the fragrance of dragons Nowadays China encounters the divine and sacred A thousand years of calm winds, the sea does not ripple
A Presentation to the Envoys of Annam, Part Two Hanja:
Sino-Korean transcription:
Revised Romanization: Mungun gajae Gujingi Suyeok sanjeong malliyeo Hyudo uigwan sujedo Gakjang munja gongsiseo Naein heonchi tongman-yo Gongwi pomo geunsangyeo Hoesu Yeomju gwirowon Yusu jungjak jinamcha Sino-Vietnamese transcription:
English translation: I've heard your home is in Cửu Chân's dwelling A journey of ten thousand miles beyond water stations and mountains Do not speak of the different customs in attire and hats Instead, let us share words and poetic texts You came because of tribute to exchange pheasants through barbarian territories Your offerings of tribute become tokens of humble respect and conveyance of imperial significance Looking back, the return route to Yanzhou is distant Who will once again construct the south-pointing chariot?
Reply to the Envoy of Joseon, Yi Su-gwang () - Vietnamese response These poems were compiled in Phùng Khắc Khoan's book, Mai Lĩnh sứ hoa thi tập ().
Reply to the Envoy of Joseon, Yi Su-gwang, Part One Chữ Hán:
Sino-Vietnamese transcription:
Sino-Korean transcription:
Revised Romanization: Iyeok donggwi yeuihyang Huibong geumil gongnaewang Chujo jeommu Eungwanhan Gwanguk cheomgwang sunmyeonsang Yeonhyang jaejeong cheomjetaek Gwirae mansu yacheonhyang Yugunjasik jingunja Haengdeuk sijung ilpyoyang English translation: From different lands, yet arriving at the same place of courtesy and righteousness Joyously encountering today's gathering before the king Hastening to court, meeting with honoured headgear and wide-brimmed hats Observing the state, gazing upon the splendor of the imperial attire, Feasting in the court, sharing in the grace of the emperor Returning with sleeves full of the fragrance of heaven Only true gentlemen can recognize genuine gentlemen Fortunate to be praised in poetry with a single verse
Reply to the Envoy of Joseon, Yi Su-gwang, Part Two Chữ Hán:
Sino-Vietnamese transcription:
Sino-Korean transcription:
Revised Romanization: Uian haji burangi Yejeop seonggyo nagyuyeo Picha susu sanhaeyeok Yeonwon dongil seonghyeonseo Gyorin pyeonsi sinwibon Jindeok simyu gyeongjagyeo Gichwi sacho hoegugil Dongnam osaek mang-uncha English translation: Wherever one may reside, Uian is a place of tranquillity Through etiquette and sincere friendship, there's ample joy Though our origins differ by mountains and seas, Our deep connection stems from the teachings of sages Being good neighbors is rooted in trust Advancing virtues requires profound respect Remembering the day when the envoy departs for his homeland In the southeast, five-coloured clouds herald the return of the chariot
Brushtalk with Lê Quý Đôn and I Sangbong Another encounter with Korean envoy I Sangbong () and Vietnamese envoy Lê Quý Đôn on 30 December 1760, led to a brushtalk about the dress customs of Đại Việt, it was recorded in the third volume of the book, Bugwollok (),
I Sangbong was fascinated with the Vietnamese custom of teeth blackening after seeing the Vietnamese envoys with blackened teeth.
A passage in the book, Jowanbyeokjeon (), also mentions these customs:
The author Jo Wanbyeok () was sold to the Japanese by the Korean military, but since he was excellent in reading Chinese characters, the Japanese traders brought him along. From there, he was able to visit Vietnam and was treated as a guest by Vietnamese officials. His biography, Jowanbyeokjeon records his experiences and brushtalks with the Vietnamese.
Brushtalks between Japanese and Vietnamese , a journalist working in Vietnam noted that he held brushtalks with locals in his book, ,
In the 18th century Japanese book, , mentions a drifter's account in Annam.
A letter sent from Nguyễn Hoàng to Tokugawa Ieyasu in 1607 shows the diplomatic relations between Japan and Vietnam during that period. The letter reads,
In media
A scene in The Partner, a 2013 Japanese-Vietnamese historical film, showed a brushtalk between Phan Bội Châu and Inukai Tsuyoshi. In the 2006 Japanese television drama Attention Please, episode 2 features a scene where Yōko Misaki (played by Aya Ueto) interacts with a Chinese traveler. They attempt to communicate using Chinese characters.
See also Adoption of Chinese literary culture Classical Chinese Sino-Xenic vocabularies
Notes
References
External links (Translation) 芝峯集 芝峯先生集 Brush Conversation in the Sinographic Cosmopolis: Interactional Cross-border Communication using Literary Sinitic in Early Modern East Asia