Mozambican literature refers to the body of written works produced in Mozambique or by Mozambican authors This literature has been shaped by the country's diverse cultures and tumultuous history, including colonialism, independence movements, and civil war. Since Mozambique was part of the Portuguese colonial empire until 1975, there are inevitable overlaps with Portuguese literature. Mozambican literature is very young, as one can only speak of Mozambican national literature in the narrower sense since independence from Portugal in 1975.
Mozambique has literature can be traced back to the early 20th century, with the publication of the country's first literary journal, O Brado Africano, in 1918. However, it was not until the 1950s that a distinct Mozambican literary voice emerged, as writers began to challenge colonial oppression and assert their cultural identity. The period following Mozambique's independence in 1975 was a particularly fruitful time for Mozambican literature, with writers exploring themes of national identity, social justice, and post-colonialism. Mozambican literature has also been influenced by various literary movements. In the 1960s and 1970s, the Negritude movement, which celebrated black cultural identity, had a significant impact on Mozambican literature. In the post-independence period, the New Wave movement emerged, which sought to challenge traditional literary forms and explore new styles and themes. The concept of “national literature” In the Romantic era of the 19th century, the concept of national literature emerged, portraying literature as an expression of the "folk spirit" and national culture. Mozambique, a former Portuguese colony, achieved independence after a ten-year war and the Carnation Revolution in Portugal in 1974 and 1975, respectively. Although Mozambique's statehood had been under colonial rule for centuries, the country did not experience a natural development of its national culture. Instead, Portuguese culture heavily influenced the Mozambican nation right from its inception.
One notable aspect of this influence was the adoption of the Portuguese language. With over a dozen languages spoken in Mozambique, including Bantu languages with limited written traditions, Portuguese became the "língua de unidade nacional" or language of national unity.Gerhard Schönberger: Mosambikanische Literatur portugiesischer Sprache: Entstehung und Probleme einer Nationalliteratur. Frankfurt a. M. 2002. , S. 58. This adoption had historical and practical reasons. The Mozambican urban elite embraced Portuguese early on, as many intellectuals studied in Portugal and assimilation to Portuguese culture offered social advancement opportunities. Additionally, since no native language was universally understood by all Mozambicans, Portuguese became the lingua franca of the country. Given the absence of written literature in native languages and the oral nature of their literary traditions, Portuguese emerged as the medium for creating a written national literature. Furthermore, Portuguese facilitated connections with other Portuguese-speaking countries like Angola, as well as former Portuguese colonies such as Brazil, Guinea-Bissau, Cape Verde, and São Tomé and Príncipe. At the time of independence, Mozambique had the highest illiteracy rate (95%) among former African colonies. The Mozambique liberation movement (FRELIMO) selected Portuguese as the language for their literacy campaign during the struggle for independence, using it to disseminate their Marxist-nationalist ideology.
During the period from 1964, when the armed struggle for national liberation commenced, until 1975, when Mozambique attained political independence, literature focused on the country's historical events, armed struggle, and revolution. Works like Craveirinha's Chigubo, published in 1964, exemplified this trend, embodying the "war cry" in the local dialect.TRIGO, Salvato. “Literatura Colonial - Literaturas Africanas”. Literaturas Africanas de Língua Portuguesa – Colóquio sobre Literaturas dos Países Africanos de Língua Portuguesa, Lisboa, Fundação Calouste Gulbenkian (1987). Mozambican literature draws heavily from the rich storytelling tradition of its diverse peoples. Ancestral reverence holds significance for many ethnic groups, and folktales narrate the lives of previous generations with a blend of realism and mythology. For instance, the Makonde people have a tale about the "first Makonde," which explains why subsequent generations reside in the highlands rather than on the riverbanks. Thus, Mozambican literature reflects the cultural heritage and narrative traditions of its diverse population.
Periodization of Mozambican literature
Oral tradition The oral literary tradition of Mozambique is represented by fairy tales, proverbs, riddles and legends of different peoples of the country. People and animals act as heroes of folklore. Separately, it is worth noting the art of poets and musicians of the Chopi people, who have retained their original poetic art, which originated before colonization. The performance of poems by Chopi is accompanied by the playing of national instruments - timbilash.
1854 – 1924
Since the introduction of the printing press to Mozambique in 1854, printed literature made its debut in the mid-19th century. However, literary production in the colony was initially limited.Pires Laranjeira: Literaturas Africanas de Expressão Portuguesa. Lissabon 1995. , S. 18. One exception was Campos Oliveira (1847–1911), a Mozambican-born writer who published numerous poems while studying law in Portuguese India. Upon his return to Mozambique in 1866, he continued publishing and even founded magazines such as Revista Africana and Almanac Popular.Gerhard Schönberger: Mosambikanische Literatur portugiesischer Sprache: Entstehung und Probleme einer Nationalliteratur. Frankfurt a. M. 2002. , S. 70. Earlier, there were instances of writers residing in or visiting the Island of Mozambique, such as Luís de Camões and Tomás António Gonzaga.
Nonetheless, the generation of a local literature was not widespread during this time, except for the contributions of Campos Oliveira. The true emergence of literary texts in Mozambique occurred at the beginning of the 20th century. Supported by an assimilated class of intellectuals in urban areas, predominantly mestizos and mulattoes, a genuinely Mozambican Portuguese-language literature began to flourish. In 1920, Mozambique's first cultural association, the Grémio Africano, was established.Patrick Chabal: Vozes moçambicanas. Literatura e Nacionalidade. Lissabon 1994. , S. 40. Unlike later associations that were racially segregated, this association admitted both blacks and mulattoes. Numerous magazines were founded during this period, including the influential O Africano (1909–1918), founded by the Albasini brothers, José and João. After its sale in 1918, the brothers, along with Estácio Dias and Karel Pott, established (1918–1974) ("Cry of Africa"), where many important Mozambican writers published their first works, which included texts not only in Portuguese but also in shironga. The authors affiliated with this journal openly advocated for the interests of black people in the colony, shaping a generation of writers and fostering African self-confidence.Gerhard Schönberger: Mosambikanische Literatur portugiesischer Sprache: Entstehung und Probleme einer Nationalliteratur. Frankfurt a. M. 2002. , S. 73. Many renowned writers published their poems and essays in this newspaper, including Noémia de Sousa, who edited the women's pages, and Marcelino dos Santos, who became a founding member of Frelimo.
Emergence (1925 – 1946)
In the mid-20th century, Mozambican literature experienced different phases of development. It began with the posthumous publication of João dos Santos Albasini's O livro da dor (1925), a collection of personal reflections, which marked the start of the second phase.Pires Laranjeira: Literaturas Africanas de Expressão Portuguesa. Lissabon 1995. , S. 257. While Juan Albasini's represented the opposing view where other authors aligned with the colonial authorities like Rodrigues Junior and Manuel de Brito Camacho.Gerhard Schönberger, p. 78.
During this period, Mozambicans, who were often looked down upon due to their limited proficiency in Portuguese, sought to imitate European literature as closely as possible.Gerhard Schönberger: Mosambikanische Literatur portugiesischer Sprache: Entstehung und Probleme einer Nationalliteratur. Frankfurt a. M. 2002. , S. 77. This imitation extended to the choice of genres, with poet Rui de Noronha predominantly using the sonnet form in his works, following the European tradition. Other authors were Sousa Ribeiro with Symphonia conspirante (1928), Augusto Conrado with A Perjura ou a Mulher de Duplo Amor (1931), Fibras d'um coração (1933) and Divagações (1938).
However, the establishment of the Estado Novo in 1933 and the subsequent censorship hindered the development of Mozambican national literature. Freedom of expression and the press were severely restricted, especially when compared to French and British colonies. Consequently, Mozambican literary developments were scarcely recognized outside the country. Nevertheless, the repression fueled the politicization of literature and the growth of an African consciousness.Gerhard Schönberger: Mosambikanische Literatur portugiesischer Sprache: Entstehung und Probleme einer Nationalliteratur. Frankfurt a. M. 2002. , S. 78. This phase concluded in 1946 with the posthumous publication of Rui de Noronha's Sonetos. The literature produced in Mozambique, like other African literature in countries colonized by Portugal, was an extension of Portuguese literature. In written form, literary production was consolidated from the 1940s onwards through periodicals published by intellectuals and writers, generally challenging Portuguese colonialism, such as the "Literary Shout" that circulated in the country between 1918 and 1974 with texts by Rui Nogar, Marcelino dos Santos, José Craveirinha, Orlando Mendes and Virgílio Lemos, between others. In the 19th century, the press and literature were close, the former being a professional alternative for writers who could not survive from literary production. José Craveirinha, considered the father of Mozambican literature.Joana Daniela Martins Vilaça de Faria: Mia Couto – Luandino Vieira: uma leitura em travessia pela escrita criativa ao serviço das identidades. (PDF; 700 kB) Universidade do Minho 2005, p. 16. From 1945 to 1965 he was the most read author in Mozambique.Gerhard Schönberger: Mosambikanische Literatur portugiesischer Sprache: Entstehung und Probleme einer Nationalliteratur. p. 82.