Schramm's model of communication is an early and influential model of communication. It was first published by Wilbur Schramm in 1954 and includes innovations over previous models, such as the inclusion of a feedback loop and the discussion of the role of fields of experience. For Schramm, communication is about sharing information or having a common attitude towards signs. His model is based on three basic components: a source, a destination, and a message. The process starts with an idea in the mind of the source. This idea is then encoded into a message using signs and sent to the destination. The destination needs to decode and interpret the signs to reconstruct the original idea. In response, they formulate their own message, encode it, and send it back as a form of feedback. Feedback is a key part of many forms of communication. It can be used to mitigate processes that may undermine successful communication, such as external noise or errors in the phases of encoding and decoding.
The success of communication also depends on the fields of experience of the participants. A field of experience includes past life experiences as well as attitudes and beliefs. It affects how the processes of encoding, decoding, and interpretation take place. For successful communication, the message has to be located in the overlap of the fields of experience of both participants. If the message is outside the receiver's field of experience, they are unable to connect it to the original idea. This is often the case when there are big cultural differences.
Schramm holds that the sender usually has some goal they wish to achieve through communication. He discusses the conditions that are needed to have this effect on the audience, such as gaining their attention and motivating them to act towards this goal. He also applies his model to mass communication. One difference from other forms of communication is that successful mass communication is more difficult since there is very little feedback. In the 1970s, Schramm proposed many revisions to his earlier model. They focus on additional factors that make communication more complex. An example is the relation between sender and receiver: it influences the goal of communication and the roles played by the participants.
Schramm's criticism of linear models of communication, which lack a feedback loop, has been very influential. One shortcoming of Schramm's model is that it assumes that the communicators take turns in exchanging information instead of sending messages simultaneously. Another objection is that Schramm conceives information and its meaning as preexisting entities rather than seeing communication as a process that creates meaning.
Background Schramm's model of communication was published by Wilbur Schramm in 1954. It is one of the earliest interaction models of communication. It was conceived as a response to and an improvement over earlier attempts in the form of linear transmission models, like the Shannon–Weaver model and Lasswell's model. Models of communication are simplified presentations of the process of communication and try to explain it by discussing its main components and their relations.
For Schramm, a central aspect of communication is that the participants "are trying to establish a 'commonness by sharing an idea or information. In this regard, communication can be defined as "the sharing of an orientation toward a set of informational signs" and is based on a relation between the communicators. So when a person calls the fire department to report a fire in their home, this is an attempt to share information about the fire. This sharing happens through messages. For Schramm, messages are made up of signs. Each sign corresponds to some element in experience, like the sign "dog" which "stands for our generalized experience of dogs". This sign is meaningless for someone who has never experienced dogs before or who does not associate the sign with their experiences of dogs.
The theories of psychologist Charles Osgood were a significant influence and inspired Schramm to formulate his model. According to Osgood, meaning is located not just in the message but also in the social context. His psycholinguistic approach focuses on how external stimuli elicit internal responses in the form of interpretations. These responses mediate between the stimulus and its meaning. Osgood's ideas influenced Schramm in two important ways: (1) he posited a field of shared experience acting as the background of communication and (2) he added the stages of encoding and decoding as internal responses to the process. Because of these influences, some theorists refer to Schramm's model as the "Osgood–Schramm model".
Most theorists identify Schramm's model with his 1954 book The process and effects of mass communication and present it as a reaction to earlier models developed in the late 1940s. However, marketing scholar Jim Blythe argues that Schramm's model is of earlier origin and was already present in Schramm's 1949 book Mass Communication.
Overview and basic components For Schramm, communication has in its most basic form three parts: a source, a message, and a destination. The source can be an individual or an organization, like a newspaper or a television station. The same is true for the destination. The process starts in the sender's mind, where the message originates in the form of an idea. To share this information, the source needs to encode it first into symbolic form since the idea cannot be transmitted directly from mind to mind. This can happen in various ways: the signs can be linguistic (like written or spoken words) or non-linguistic (like pictures, music, or animal sounds). They are then transmitted through a channel, for example, as sounds for a face-to-face conversation, as ink on paper for a letter, or as electronic signals in the case of text messaging. At this stage, noise may interfere with the transmission and distort the message. Once the message reaches the receiver, the reverse process of decoding is applied: the receiver attaches meaning to the signs according to their own field of experience. This way, they try to reconstruct the sender's original idea. The process continues when the receiver returns a new message as feedback to the original sender.
The process of communication can fail in various ways. For example, the message may be distorted by external noise. But errors can also occur at the stages of encoding and decoding when the source does not use the correct signs or when the pattern of decoding does not match the pattern of encoding. A further problem is posed if the original information is faulty, to begin with. For effective communication, all these negative influences need to be avoided.
Schramm's model is based on the Shannon–Weaver model. According to the Shannon–Weaver model, communication is an interaction of various components. A source translates a message into a signal using a transmitter. The signal is then sent through a channel to a receiver. The receiver translate the signal back into a message and makes it available to a destination. The steps of encoding and decoding in Schramm's model perform the same role as transmitter and receiver in the Shannon–Weaver model. Because of its emphasis on communication as a circular process, the main focus of Schramm's model is on the behavior of senders and receivers. For this reason, it does not involve a detailed technical discussion of the channel and influences of noise, unlike the Shannon–Weaver model.
Feedback
The role of feedback is one innovation of Schramm's model in comparison to earlier models. Schramm sees communication as a dynamic interaction in which two participants exchange messages. That means that the process of communication does not end in the receiver's mind. Instead, upon receiving a message, the communicator returns some feedback: they formulate a new message in the form of an idea, encode it, and convey it to the original sender, where the process starts anew. Communication is an endless process in the sense that people constantly decode and interpret their environment to assign meaning to it and encode possible responses to it.
Models without a feedback loop, like the Shannon–Weaver model and Lasswell's model, are called linear transmission models. They contrast with interaction models, also known as non-linear or circular transmission models. Schramm rejects the idea of a passive audience present in linear models of communication. He argues instead that the audience should be understood as a full partner. Feedback is a vital aspect of many forms of communication. It can be used to confirm that the message was received and to mitigate the influence of noise. For example, the message may get distorted on the way or the receiver may misinterpret it. In such cases, the feedback loop makes it possible to assess whether such errors occurred and, if so, repeat the message to ensure that it is understood correctly.
Schramm also discusses another form of feedback that does not depend on the other person. This happens when the sender pays attention to their own message, for example, when reading through a letter one just wrote to check its style and tone.
Field of experience
Another innovation of Schramm's model is the role of fields of experience. A field of experience is a mental frame of reference. It includes past life experiences as well as the attitudes, values, and beliefs of the communicators. Each participant has their own field of experience. It determines how the processes of encoding, decoding, and interpretation take place. For example, an American is unable to encode their message in Russian if they have never learned this language. And if a person from an indigenous tribe has never heard of an airplane then they are unable to accurately decode messages about airplanes. The more the participants are alike, the more their fields of experience overlap. For communication to be successful, the message has to be located within both fields of experience, i.e. in their overlap.
The bigger the cultural differences, the more difficult effective communication becomes. This is especially relevant for communication across national boundaries. Blythe cites this lack of overlap as an example of failed communication in the case of foreign advertisements, which may appear incomprehensible or unintentionally humorous. The lack of overlap can also happen for people within the same culture, for example, when an amateur tries to read specialist scientific literature. In some cases, such problems can be avoided if the sender is able to encode their message using an easy expression that is accessible to the destination. The concept of a field of experience is similar to what later models refer to as social and cultural contexts.
Conditions of successful communication Communication is usually tied to some intended effect. So putting an advertisement in a newspaper, scolding a child, or engaging in a job interview are forms of communication directed at different goals. Communication is not always successful and the message may fail to achieve the intended effect. Schramm lists four conditions of successful communication. The message must be designed (1) to gain the attention of the destination and (2) to be understandable to get the meaning across. Additionally, it must (3) arouse needs in the destination, and (4) suggest a way how these needs can be met.
To get the attention of the audience, the message must be accessible to them. When talking, for example, one must talk loud enough to be heard. To ensure that the message is understandable, the sender must be aware of the field of experience of the audience in order to choose words and examples that are familiar to them. Through the relation to the destination's needs, the message can unfold its effect by motivating them to respond.