Abū ʿAbd Allāh al-Mufaḍḍal ibn ʿUmar al-Juʿfī (), died before 799, was an early Shi'i leader and the purported author of a number of religious and philosophical writings. A contemporary of the Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799),. also mentions the Abū Muḥammad. he belonged to those circles in Kufa whom later Twelver Shi'i authors would call ('exaggerators') for their 'exaggerated' veneration of the Imams.; . On the more generally, see further ; . On their cosmology and theology, see .
As a money-changer, al-Mufaddal wielded considerable financial and political power. He was likely also responsible for managing the financial affairs of the Imams in Medina. For a time he was a follower of the famous leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6), who had claimed that the Imams were divine. Early Imami heresiographers and Nusayri sources regard al-Mufaddal as a staunch supporter of Abu al-Khattab's ideas who later spawned his own movement (the ). However, Twelver Shi'i sources instead report that after Ja'far al-Sadiq's repudiated Abu al-Khattab in 748, al-Mufaddal broke with Abu al-Khattab and became a trusted companion of Ja'far's son Musa al-Kazim.. discusses the account of the proto-Twelver scholar al-Kashshi ( half of the 10th century), who cites some reports alleging that al-Mufaddal had briefly fallen into heresy during his time with Abu al-Khattab, and that Ja'far had reluctantly repudiated al-Mufaddal as an infidel. However, most Twelver Shi'i sources deny that al-Mufaddal was ever involved in any heresy (see ).
A number of writings—collectively known as the Mufaddal Tradition—have been attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which are still extant.For the term 'Mufaddal Tradition', see ; ; . A list of works is given by and (summarized in the sections below). They were likely falsely attributed to al-Mufaddal by later 9th–11th-century authors. As one of the closest confidants of Ja'far al-Sadiq, al-Mufaddal was an attractive figure for authors of various Shi'i persuasions: by attributing their own ideas to him they could invest these ideas with the authority of the Imam.. The writings attributed to al-Mufaddal are very different in nature and scope, but Ja'far al-Sadiq is the main speaker in most of them.. Many of Ja'far al-Sadiq's followers belonged to the , which may also partly explain why this Imam looms so large in writings such as those attributed to al-Mufaddal; see .
A major part of the extant writings attributed to al-Mufaddal originated among the , an early branch of Shi'i Islam. A recurring theme in these texts is the myth of the world's creation through the fall from grace of pre-existent "shadows" or human souls, whom God punished for their disobedience by concealing himself from them and by casting them down into the seven heavens.; cf. . The (Book of the Seven and the Shadows, 8th to 11th centuries) develops the theme of seven primordial Adams who rule over the seven heavens and initiate the seven historical world cycles. The (Book of the Path, written –941) describes an initiatory "path" leading believers back through the seven heavens towards God. Those who grow in religious devotion and knowledge climb upwards on the chain of being, but others are reborn into human bodies, while unbelievers travel downwards and reincarnate into animal, vegetable, or mineral bodies. Those who reach the seventh heaven and attain the rank of ("Gate") enjoy a beatific vision of God and share the divine power to manifest themselves in the world of matter..
Among the extant non- texts attributed to al-Mufaddal, most of which were preserved in the Twelver Shi'i tradition, two treatises stand out for their philosophical content. These are the (al-Mufaddal's ) and the (Book of the Myrobalan Fruit), both of which feature Ja'far al-Sadiq presenting al-Mufaddal with a proof for the existence of God. The teleological argument used in the is inspired by Syriac Christian literature (especially commentaries on the Hexameron), and ultimately goes back to Hellenistic models such as pseudo-Aristotle's (3rd/2nd century BCE) and Stoic theology as recorded in Cicero's (106–43 BCE) .; . The dialectical style of the is more typical of early Muslim speculative theology (),. and the work may originally have been authored by the 8th-century scribe Muhammad ibn Layth. Both works may be regarded as part of an attempt to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal as a reliable transmitter of hadiths in the Twelver Shi'i tradition.
Life
Al-Mufaddal was a non-Arab ("client") of the Ju'fa, a tribe belonging to the South-Arabian Madhhij confederation.. Apart from the fact that he was a money-changer based in Kufa (Iraq), very little is known about his life. He probably managed the financial affairs of the Shi'ite Imams Ja'far al-Sadiq (–765) and Musa al-Kazim (745–799), who resided in Medina (Arabia). Using his professional network, he actively raised funds for the Imams in Medina, thus also playing an important role as an intermediary between the Imams and the Shi'ite community.. The rise of money-changers as central figures who wielded considerable financial and political power coincided with the Imamate of Ja'far al-Sadiq; see . On this subject, see further . His date of death is unknown, but he died before Musa al-Kazim, who died in 799..
At some point during his life, al-Mufaddal's relations with Ja'far al-Sadiq soured because of his adherence to the teachings of the Kufan leader Abu al-Khattab (died 755–6). Abu al-Khattab had been a designated spokesman of Ja'far, but in he was excommunicated by the Imam for his 'extremist' or 'exaggerated' () ideas, particularly for having declared Ja'far to be divine.. However, al-Mufaddal later recanted and cut of all contact with the (the followers of Abu al-Khattab), leading to a reconciliation with Ja'far.
This episode was understood in widely different ways by later Shi'i authors. On the one hand, early Imami (i.e., proto-Twelver Shi'i) heresiographers report the existence of a sect named after him, the , who would have declared Ja'far to be God and al-Mufaddal his prophet or Imam. It is not certain whether the really ever existed, and if they did, whether they really held the doctrines attributed to them by the heresiographers. Nevertheless, al-Mufaddal was also highly regarded by the members of other sects such as the , and several of the writings attributed to him contain ideas. He was even accused in some hadith reports of having tried to contaminate Ja'far's eldest son Isma'il with the ideas of Abu al-Khattab. In addition, most works attributed to al-Mufaddal were preserved by the Nusayris, a sect that survives to this day and that sometimes regarded al-Mufaddal as a (an official deputy of the Imam and a "gateway" to his secret knowledge).. On the concept of in Shi'ism, see .
On the other hand, later Twelver Shi'i sources often insist that al-Mufaddal never gave in to heresy, and they often emphasize that it was al-Mufaddal who was appointed by Ja'far to lead the back to the right path.; . The proto-Twelver scholar al-Kashshi ( half of the 10th century) did cite some reports alleging that al-Mufaddal had briefly fallen into heresy during his time with Abu al-Khattab, and that Ja'far had reluctantly repudiated al-Mufaddal as an infidel (see ). Some of the works attributed to al-Mufaddal, like the and the , explicitly refute those who would deny the exclusive oneness () of God. These works may have been written in order to rehabilitate al-Mufaddal within the Twelver tradition and to prove his reliability as a hadith transmitter.. , in contrast, suggests that they may have been written before al-Mufaddal gained the reputation of being an unreliable among some 10th/11th-century Twelver authors. Turner's argument is that false attributions are made to lend authority to a work, and that it would not make sense to attribute a work to someone reputed to be unreliable. Gleave, on the other hand, assumes that attributing 'orthodox' doctrine to someone can enhance that person's reputation for reliability. But even among Twelver scholars there was dissension. For example, while al-Shaykh al-Mufid (–1022) praised al-Mufaddal as a learned person and a trustworthy companion of the Imams, al-Najashi () and Ibn al-Ghada'iri ( half of the 11th century)On Ibn al-Ghada'iri, see . denounced him as an unbelieving heretic.. See further .
works (Book of the Seven and the Shadows)
Content The (Book of the Seven and the Shadows), also known as (Noble Book of the Seven) or simply as (Book of the Seven), 8th–11th centuries,. The various titles are discussed by Asatryan 2017, pp. 18–19. is perhaps the most important work attributed to al-Mufaddal.; . It sets out in great detail the myth of the pre-existent "shadows" (Arabic: ) whose fall from grace led to the creation of the material world. This theme of pre-existent shadows seems to have been typical of the 8th-century Kufan : also appearing in other early works such as the , it may ultimately go back to Abd Allah ibn Harb ().. On Abd Allah ibn Harb, see . Various versions of the myth are summarized by . On the theme of pre-existent shadows in general, see also .
Great emphasis is placed throughout the work on the need to keep the knowledge received from Ja'far al-Sadiq, who is referred to as ("our lord"), from falling into the wrong hands. This secret knowledge is entrusted by Ja'far to al-Mufaddal, but is reserved only for true believers ().. It involves notions such as the transmigration of souls ( or metempsychosis) and the idea that seven Adams exist in the seven heavens, each one of them presiding over one of the seven historical world cycles.. On , see further . On the seven Adams and world cycles (), see . On world cycles in general, see . This latter idea may reflect an influence from Isma'ilism, where the appearance of each new prophet (Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, Muhammad, Muhammad ibn Isma'il) is likewise thought to initiate a new world cycle.. In the Isma'ili version of the doctrine of world cycles, Muhammad is the initiator of the current, penultimate cycle, while Ja'far al-Sadiq's grandson Muhammad ibn Isma'il is the concealed and awaited initiator of the last cycle.
A central element of the is the creation myth involving pre-existent "shadows", which also occurs in many other works with slightly different details.. According to this myth, the first created beings were human souls who initially dwelt in the presence of God in the form of shadows. When the shadows disobeyed God, he created a veil () in which he concealed himself as a punishment. Then God created the seven heavens as a dwelling place for the disobedient souls, according to their sin. In each of the heavens God also created bodies from his own light for the souls who arrived there, and from the souls' disobedience he created the Devil. Finally, from the offspring of the Devil God created the bodies of animals and various other sublunary entities ()..
Composition and legacy