The period between the Pacification of Ghent (8 November 1576), and the Unions of Arras (6 January 1579) and Utrecht (23 January 1579) constituted a crucial phase of the Eighty Years' War (–1648) between the Spanish Empire and the rebelling United Provinces, which would become the independent Dutch Republic. Sometimes known as the "general revolt", the period marked the only time of the war where the States–General of all Seventeen Provinces of the Habsburg Netherlands, except Luxemburg, were in joint active political and military rebellion against the Spanish Imperial government through the Pacification of Ghent. The Pacification formulated several agreements amongst the rebellious provinces themselves, and laid down their demands – including the immediate withdrawal of foreign (mostly Spanish, Italian and German) troops from the Netherlands, restitution of old rights and privileges, and self-rule – to king Philip II of Spain.
From 8 November 1576 until 23 July 1577, the new Spanish Governor-General of the Netherlands John of Austria (known to history as "Don Juan") engaged in peace negotiations with the States-General. The First Union of Brussels (9 January 1577) confirmed the Pacification, adding that the States would uphold the Catholic religion in their provinces. By signing the Edict of 1577 on 12 February 1577 at Marche-en-Famenne, Don Juan nominally accepted all demands of the Pacification. Most foreign troops withdrew to the territory of Luxemburg, which had not joined the Pacification. Although a few sieges of cities with Spanish garrisons that refused to withdraw took place, these were mostly resolved quickly by paying them off; in general, the situation had potential for putting an end to the war if agreements could be reached and respected between the parties.
From 24 July 1577 until 6 January 1579, starting with the capture of the Citadel of Namur, Don Juan and his second-in-command and successor Alexander Farnese, Duke of Parma launched a military offensive against the United Provinces, while seeking to reconcile provinces that were willing to subject themselves back under the Spanish royal government under certain conditions. In response, the States-General's Second Union of Brussels (10 December 1577) showed a more fierce and determined opposition to the Spanish government, now demanding (and themselves guaranteeing) equal protection for Catholics and Protestants in all provinces of the Netherlands. William "the Silent" of Orange became the de facto political leader of the United Provinces, while Matthias of Austria was brought in to replace Don Juan as Governor-General.
The Battle of Gembloux (31 January 1578) was a devastating defeat for the rebels, however, and many began to talk about surrender. Moreover, radical Calvinists had seized power in various cities in Flanders and Brabant, most notably the so-called Calvinist Republic of Ghent, persecuting Catholics and alienating many Catholic allies which had up until that point supported the rebellion, but now became known as the Malcontents. Parma was able to successfully exert his diplomatic skills on some of these Malcontents, negotiating with several Catholic noblemen and regents in various southern provinces with promises of respecting their interests in return for abandoning the revolt. Finally, the united front of the States-General collapsed on 6 January 1579 when the County of Artois, the County of Hainaut and the city of Douai signed the Union of Arras, seeking to revert to Catholicism and the Spanish government under more moderate demands than the Pacification. On 17 May 1579, they signed a separate peace treaty with the king. In response, most of the other provinces and cities (virtually only in the Dutch-speaking parts of the Low Countries) sought to reaffirm their commitment to the Pacification, as well as the Second Union of Brussels, and forging an even closer political and military alliance by concluding the Union of Utrecht on 23 January 1579.
Background
Despite his swift reconquest of most places captured by insurgents in 1572–1573, the Duke of Alba was unable to crush the Netherlandish rebellion, which had turned into a war of attrition against the remaining rebel pockets in Holland and Zeeland by mid-1573. Following the seven-month-long Siege of Haarlem, Alba requested and was granted to be relieved in December 1573. In his stead, Philip II appointed Luis de Requesens as Governor-General, and a new policy of moderation was attempted. However, Requesens did not manage to broker a policy acceptable to both the Spanish king and the States of Holland and Zeeland. Following the Spanish state's bankruptcy on 1 September 1575 and the death of Requesens on 5 March 1576, the Spanish mercenary armies were left without pay and leadership, leading to numerous mutinies. The resulting Spanish Fury, a series of sackings of towns by pillaging and looting unpaid mutinous Spanish troops, reached alarming proportions in the course of 1576.
Mutinies and convention of the States-General (March–November 1576)
In accordance to protocol, the governance of the loyal provinces was temporarily transferred to the Council of State upon Requesens' death while awaiting the appointment of a new governor-general. The Council was immediately put under pressure by the States of Brabant – who had convened on their own initiative without permission – repeating their demands from the failed 1575 Breda peace talks: to send away the foreign troops, to appoint Netherlandish officials rather than foreign ones, and to convoke the States-General, who should not just have advisory competence but co-decision power. The Council of State was thus put in an awkward position, particularly when king Philip informed the Council on 12 June 1576 that he would neither approve of the States-General convening, nor of further peace negotiations with Holland and Zeeland.
Meanwhile in March and April 1576, some 1,300 Habsburg light cavalrymen, some of whom had not received payment in six years, moved to Flanders and Brabant and started pillaging. When the Siege of Zierikzee ended with a royalist victory on 30 June 1576, government forces also mutinied. 5,300 Spanish mutineers from Zierikzee marched on Flanders, on the way ravaging, looting and extorting the countryside, committing the (25 July 1576), and using Aalst as a base of operations for further plundering, even threatening Brussels. The loyal provinces had reluctantly backed the royal government against the Rebellion so far, but now a loyal city had been sacked. Following pressure of the provincial States, the Council declared the mutineers enemies of the state, and authorised the States of Brabant to raise troops to defend against both the mutineers and the troops of William of Orange. Indeed, the States of Brabant raised their own troops to protect Brussels. The Flemish States soon followed their example.
Many members of the loyal opposition were not satisfied with the Council of State's response, however, as it still refused to convene the States-General and hold peace talks with the rebels. On 4 September 1576, Brabantian soldiers commanded by the lord of Heeze arrested the members of the Council of State in Brussels. It is unknown who was behind this coup; although William of Orange was Heeze's godfather, it could also have been Philippe III de Croÿ, Duke of Aarschot, who was himself a Council member, and leader of the Catholic royalist moderates who sought peace with William. The next day, the pro-Spanish government was deposed, and on 6 September the States of Brabant sent out invitations to the provinces for convening the States-General. In doing so, they violated royal prerogative to convene the States-General and raise armies. Initially, only Flanders and Hainaut would respond to the Brabantian invitation. In order to increase their sense of legitimacy, they freed a few Council members such as the aging Viglius to write and send new invitations.
Troops recently raised by the Brabantian States were defeated by a mutinous Spanish force in the (14 September 1576). To prevent further atrocities in their province, the States of Flanders decided on the (15 September – 11 November 1576), a castle in Ghent with a Spanish garrison threatening munity. However, they struggled mounting the assault, and resolved to request assistance from William of Orange, who sent Hollandic troops to Ghent in late September. The meeting of the States-General started on 25 September 1576, initially only attended by representatives of Brabant, Flanders and Hainaut. The States-General established a Council of War as the new supreme body of the Habsburg Netherlandish army, appointed Aarschot the new commander-in-chief, Philip de Lalaing, 3rd Count of Lalaing (stadtholder of Hainaut) as lieutenant-general, and as field marshal (marischal du camp). In October and November 1576, other noblemen were appointed to high military offices.
In the meantime, the situation caused by the large-scale mutinies had thoroughly disrupted everyday life in Flanders and Brabant, where rural inhabitants armed themselves against the mutineers (sometimes selling their cattle to do so), or fled to the safety of the walled cities. Infectious diseases also spread. Civilians attempted to limit the mutineers' movements by blocking roads, breaking down bridges and sinking ships, thereby disrupting traffic, including postal communication that was important for coordinating joint actions. The (20 October 1576) saw even more Spanish mutineers plunder a city, and kill many self-defending civilians.
Delegations of representatives from southern provinces such as Artois, Walloon Flanders and Namur (but neither Luxemburg nor Limburg), as well as Utrecht, joined the States-General meeting in October. On William's suggestion that Brussels was too unsafe, the States-General convened in Ghent. Representatives from Holland and Zeeland later also arrived in Ghent, where negotiations began on 19 October. On 3 November 1576, the various representatives of the provinces reached an agreement on political issues at the States-General in Ghent, and were preparing negotiations on religious matters. On 4 November 1576, the Spanish Fury culminated in the Sack of Antwerp; Spanish mutineers went on a murderous and pillaging rampage through the city that had up to that point been the most prosperous of the Low Countries. Some 8,000 lives were lost, often murdered in horrendous manners, while about 600 houses were destroyed by fire. The mutineers stole about 1.5 million guilders and other valuables in loot, which took them three weeks to carry away from Antwerp.
Pacification of Ghent
Shocked by the atrocities in Antwerp and elsewhere, the loyal provinces sought contact with the rebels. Philippe de Croÿ, Duke of Aarschot, took over government and allowed the States-General to start peace negotiations with the States of Holland and Zeeland in the city of Ghent. All agreed that the Spanish troops should be withdrawn, and they pledged to fight together against mutinous Spanish forces that might cause further harm and damage to the civilian population. There was also agreement on the suspension of the placards against heresy and freedom of conscience. For the mostly Catholic provinces, the destruction by mutinous foreign troops was the principal reason to join in an open revolt, but formally the provinces still remained loyal to the sovereign Philip II. The resulting Pacification of Ghent was signed 8 November 1576, mere days after the Sack of Antwerp. The Pacification did not reach agreement on religion, but merely stated that a definitive policy was to be adopted later. This vagueness remained one of the principal sources of contention throughout the short period in which the 16 provinces were cooperating in their opposition to the royal government (see :#Growing discord amongst the Provinces).