The Ming dynasty was an imperial dynasty that ruled over China proper from 1368 to 1644 during the late imperial era of China (960–1912). The dynasty was founded by the Hongwu Emperor, who successfully led a rebellion against the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty, forcing the last Yuan emperor to flee China proper. After 276 years of rule, the Ming fell in 1644 when a rebel army led by Li Zicheng captured its primary capital, Beijing. Li subsequently established the Shun dynasty but was in turn defeated by the Manchu-led Qing dynasty, which occupied northern China in the same year. Although they lost control of the north, members of the Ming imperial family—collectively known as the Southern Ming—continued to rule over southern China but were gradually pushed back by the Manchus until the last emperor, the Yongli Emperor, was executed in 1662 in Burma.
The Ming dynasty continued the use of era names, a system introduced by Emperor Wu of Han in 114 BC, or more formally in 110 BC. An era name (), or "reign motto", was chosen at the beginning of an emperor's reign to reflect the political, economic, or social conditions of the time. During the Ming dynasty, with the exception of Emperor Yingzong, who had two separate reigns, each emperor used only one era name throughout his reign, whereas emperors of earlier dynasties often adopted multiple era names. As a result, Ming emperors are commonly referred to by their era names.
The Ming had a total of 17 era names. The first, Hongwu, was inaugurated by the Hongwu Emperor in 1368, while the last, Chongzhen, ended when the Chongzhen Emperor committed suicide during the fall of Beijing in 1644. The longest-used era name was Wanli, lasting 48 years, while the shortest was Taichang, which succeeded Wanli and lasted only about four months.
The Southern Ming continued the use of era names, employing four in total: Hongguang, Longwu, Shaowu, and Yongli. The longest-lasting was Yongli, which endured for 16 years, while the shortest was Hongguang, lasting only five months; Shaowu, by contrast, was never effectively implemented.
In the Ming dynasty, a few days usually separated each emperor's reign. When a Ming emperor died, there was a period of mourning, after which their successor was crowned as soon a "propitious" day was chosen. Emperors reigned in their predecessor's era name until a new era name was declared at the beginning of the next year.
Foreign tributary states of the Ming dynasty, such as Joseon and the Ryukyu Kingdom, also adopted and used Ming era names. Following the Qing invasion of Joseon in 1637, Joseon was forced to submit to the Qing dynasty and officially followed the Qing calendar, but secretly continued to use the Chongzhen era name to express its loyalty to the Ming and opposition to the Qing.
List Ming dynasty + Ming dynasty (1368–1644) Era name Period of use Length of use Sovereign Meaning Derived from Remark Hongwu 1368–1398 31 years Hongwu Emperor Vastly Martial Usage continued by the Jianwen Emperor upon his ascension to the throne. Usage later restored during the reign of the Yongle Emperor. Jianwen 1399–1402 4 years Jianwen Emperor Establishing Civility The Jianwen Emperor was overthrown by his uncle, the Yongle Emperor, during the Jingnan campaign. He abolished the Jianwen Emperor's reforms and declared his reign illegitimate, thereby abolishing the Jianwen era and extending the Hongwu era to 1402. It was not until 1595 that the Jianwen Emperor's era and imperial title were restored by the Wanli Emperor. Yongle 1403–1424 22 years Yongle Emperor Perpetual Happiness Initially designated as "Yongqing" (), the era name was later changed to "Yongle". Usage continued by the Hongxi Emperor upon his ascension to the throne. Hongxi 1425 1 year Hongxi Emperor Vastly Prosperous Usage continued by the Xuande Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Xuande 1426–1435 10 years Xuande Emperor Proclamation of Virtue Usage continued by Emperor Yingzong upon his ascension to the throne Zhengtong 1436–1449 14 years Emperor Yingzong Proper Reign Usage continued by the Jingtai Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Jingtai 1450–1457 7 years Jingtai Emperor Peaceful Fortune After the Jingtai Emperor was deposed in a palace coup in 1457, Emperor Yingzong—who had been captured by the Oirat Mongols in 1449 during the Tumu Crisis and placed under house arrest after returning to Beijing in 1450—was restored to the throne and proclaimed a new era, Tianshun. Tianshun 1457–1464 8 years Emperor Yingzong Conforming to Heavenly Plan Usage continued by the Chenghua Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Chenghua 1465–1487 23 years Chenghua Emperor Accomplishing Civilization Wenzi Usage continued by the Hongzhi Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Hongzhi 1488–1505 18 years Hongzhi Emperor Great Governance Usage continued by the Zhengde Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Zhengde 1506–1521 16 years Zhengde Emperor Rectification of Virtue Book of Documents,Correct Interpretation of the Book of Documents Usage continued by the Jiajing Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Jiajing 1522–1566 45 years Jiajing Emperor Admirable Tranquility Book of Documents According to Liechao nianhao bianwu, after the Jiajing Emperor ascended the throne, the court proposed three possible era names: Shaozhi (), Mingliang (), and Jiajing. "Shaozhi" implied continuing the governance of the Hongzhi era—that is, carrying on the "Hongzhi Restoration" and eliminating the maladministration of the Zhengde Emperor's reign. The Jiajing Emperor, however, chose "Jiajing" as his era name instead of the widely favored "Shaozhi". This choice was intended to signal that his accession to the throne represented dynastic continuity rather than direct filial succession. Longqing 1567–1572 6 years Longqing Emperor Great Celebration Usage continued by the Wanli Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Wanli 1573–1620 48 years Wanli Emperor Longest Reign The longest-used era name of the Ming Taichang 1620 4 months Taichang Emperor Grand Prosperity In the seventh month of the forty-eighth year of the Wanli era, the Wanli Emperor died. In the eighth month, the Taichang Emperor ascended the throne, but died only one month later. In the ninth month, the Tianqi Emperor succeeded to the throne and decreed that the period from the eighth to the twelfth month of Wanli 48 would be designated as the first year of the Taichang era. Therefore, the forty-eighth year of the Wanli era and the first year of the Taichang era fell within the same year. Tianqi 1621–1627 7 years Tianqi Emperor Heavenly Inspiration Zuo Zhuan Usage continued by the Chongzhen Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Chongzhen 1628–1644 17 years Chongzhen Emperor Honorable and Auspicious Siling dianliji states that when the Chongzhen Emperor ascended the throne, the court proposed four possible era names: Qiansheng (), Xingfu (), Xianjia (), and Chongzhen (). He ultimately chose "Chongzhen" as the era name and further altered the character from to . Liehuang xiaoshi, however, records that the proposed era names were Yongchang (), Shaoqing (), Xianjia, and Chongzhen. In the end, "Chongzhen" was selected because it is a homophone of "revival" (, ).
Southern Ming + Southern Ming (1644–1662) Era name Period of use Length of use Sovereign Meaning Remark Hongguang 1645 5 months Hongguang Emperor Great Light Usage continued by the Longwu Emperor upon his ascension to the throne Longwu 1645–1646 2 years Longwu Emperor Plentiful and Martial Usage continued under the Shaowu and Yongli emperors upon their accession to the throne Shaowu colspan="2" Shaowu Emperor Continuation of War Originally planned to supersede the Longwu era in 1647, the era name was never put into effect because the Shaowu Emperor's reign ended beforehand. Yongli 1647–1662 16 years Yongli Emperor Perpetual Calendar Usage continued by the Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning until 1683
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