Arapaho (endonym: ), also spelled Arapahoe, is one of the Plains Algonquian languages, closely related to Gros Ventre and other Arapahoan languages. It is spoken by the Arapaho of Wyoming and Oklahoma. Speakers of Arapaho primarily live on the Wind River Indian Reservation in Wyoming, though some have affiliation with the Cheyenne living in western Oklahoma.
Classification Arapaho is an Algonquian language of the Algic family.
History By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes: the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878 the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are federally recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne in Oklahoma. Together their members are enrolled as the federally recognized Cheyenne and Arapaho Tribes.
After World War II, the Northern Arapaho tribe tended to use English, not Arapaho, when raising their children. However, Arapaho speakers within the tribe still primarily speak Arapaho amongst each other. The Northern Arapaho additionally have had relatively less intermingling with other tribes and non-Native Americans compared to the Southern Arapaho, who live amongst a predominantly non-Native American population.
Current status The exact number of Arapaho speakers is not precisely known; however it has been estimated that the language currently retains between 250 and 1,000 active users. Arapaho has limited development outside of the home; however, it is used in some films and portions of the Bible were translated into the language in 1903. According to one source, under 300 people over the age of 50 speak the language in Wyoming, and in Oklahoma the language is used by "only a handful of people [...] all near eighty or older". As of 1996, there were approximately 1,000 speakers among the Northern Arapaho. As of 2008, the authors of a newly published grammar estimated that there were slightly over 250 fluent speakers, plus "quite a few near-fluent passive understanders". In 2008, it was reported that a school had been opened to teach the language to children. Arapaho language camps were held in Summer 2015 at Wind River Tribal College and in St. Stephens, Wyoming. Currently, the language may be acquired by children, for a population estimate as recent as 2007 lists an increase to 1,000 speakers and notes that the language is in use in schools, bilingual education efforts begun on Wind River Reservation in the 1980s and the Arapaho Language Lodge, a successful immersion program, was established in 1993. "The Arapaho Project" is an effort made by the Arapaho people to promote and restore their traditional language and culture. Despite hope for the language, its relatively few active users and the fact that it has seen recent population decreases render Arapaho an endangered language. Ethnologue deems it "moribund".
Dialects
Besawunena, only attested from a wordlist collected by Kroeber, differs only slightly from Arapaho, though a few of its sound changes resemble those seen in Gros Ventre. It had speakers among the Northern Arapaho as recently as the late 1920s.
Phonology Among the sound changes in the evolution from Proto-Algonquian to Arapaho are the loss of Proto-Algonquian *k, followed by *p becoming either or ; the two Proto-Algonquian semivowels merging to either or ; the change from *s to in word-initial position, and *m becoming or depending on the following vowel. Arapaho is unusual among Algonquian languages in retaining the contrast between the reconstructed phonemes *r and *θ (generally as and , respectively). These and other changes serve to give Arapaho a phonological system very divergent from that of Proto-Algonquian and other Algonquian languages, and even from languages spoken in the adjacent Great Basin. Some examples comparing Arapaho words with their cognates in Proto-Algonquian can illustrate this:
Proto-Algonquian Arapaho Translation 'man' 'hare' 'water' '(his) liver' 'leg' 'river' 'mosquito' > 'fly' 'blanket, robe' 'raven' > 'crow' 'dog'
Vowels Phonetically, Arapaho words cannot begin with a vowel; so where the underlying phonemic form of a word begins with a vowel, a prothetic is added.
Arapaho has a series of four short vowels (pronounced ) and four long vowels (written and pronounced ). Notably, Arapaho lacks phonemic low vowels. The difference in length is phonemically distinctive: compare , 'tick' with , 'day', and , 'steak' with , 'devil'. and are mostly in complementary distribution, as, with very few exceptions, the former does not occur after velar consonants, and the latter only occurs after them. There are some exceptions as in the free variants ~ , 'gun'; ~ , 'for no reason'; and ~ , 'Found in the Grass' (a mythological character). There is only one minimal pair to illustrate the contrast in distribution: , 'this' versus , 'X was done with Y', in which only occurs in bound form.
In addition, there are four diphthongs, , and several triphthongs, as well as extended sequences of vowels such as with stress on either the first or the last vowel in the combination.
Type Front Back High ⟨i⟩ ⟨u⟩ Mid ⟨e⟩ ⟨o⟩
Consonants The consonant inventory of Arapaho is given in the table below. When writing Arapaho, is normally transcribed as , as , as , and as .
Type Labial Dental Alveolar Palatal Velar Glottal Nasal Plosive Continuant
Allophony The phoneme (the voiced bilabial stop) has a voiceless allophone [p] that occurs before other consonants or at the end of a word. The plosives , , and are pronounced without aspiration in most environments, but are aspirated before other consonants or at the end of a word, or when preceding a syllable-final sequence of short vowel + . In this same environment is aspirated and devoiced. For example, the grammatical prefix is pronounced , the grammatical prefix is pronounced , and the word , 'I will turn out the lights' is .
Syllable structures Syllables tend to have the structure CV((h)C). In general, consonant clusters in Arapaho can only be two consonants long. Consonant clusters do not occur word initially, and is the only one that occurs word finally. The only consonant cluster that is "base generated" (phonemic) is . At the "surface" (phonetically), other clusters arise by phonological processes including vowel syncope, or by juxtaposition of morphemes.
However, vowel-initial onset-less syllables can occur, due to partitioning of vowel clusters. An example of partitioning a cluster of three identical vowels into syllables is , 'tepee'. The vowel cluster is not always split into short vowel followed by long vowel; the location of the partition depends on Arapaho's complex pitch accent system. For example, another word with a sequence of three vowels, but with a different partitioning of vowels into syllables is 'bed'.
However, sometimes the vowel cluster does not divide and the whole cluster becomes the nucleus of the syllable. One example is , 'his/her aunt (obviative)'.
Prosody Arapaho is a pitch accent language. There are two phonemic tones: high (marked with an acute accent) and "normal" (unmarked). The contrast can be illustrated with the pair , 'it is fancy' and , 'it is raining'. Long vowels and vowel sequences can carry a contour tone from high to low, as in , 'to hang' (where the first syllable has a normal tone) versus , "to float" (where the first syllable has a high+normal, or falling, tone). Although tonal contrasts are distinctive in Arapaho, minimal pairs such as those listed above are rare.
Orthography
+ Arapaho alphabet b c e h i k n o s 3 t u w y ’ +PhonemeLetter/b/bt͡ʃc/ɛ/e/h/h/ɪ/i/k/k/n/n/ɔ/o/s/s/θ/3/t/t/ʊ/u/w/w/j/y/ʔ/'
Morphology Arapaho is highly synthetic; verbs in particular take a large number of grammatical and semantic morphemes.
Inflectional
Nouns
Animacy Nouns in Arapaho come in two classes: animate and inanimate. Which category a noun belongs to is part of the lexicon. Being animate does not necessitate "aliveness" (but aliveness does mean animate): doors, planets, ghosts, etc. are considered animate. Some nouns can also be both animate and inanimate, but in these situations, the animate version is more "active" (e.g., a log is inanimate, but a rolling log is animate).
Obviation Animate nouns can be made obviative or proximate.
When the underlying noun is consonant final, two general patterns can occur. One pattern occurs for the class of nouns that have or (depending on vowel harmony) as their plural marker. These nouns reuse the plural marker to mark obviative singular and both obviative and proximate plural. For example, , a stem meaning 'elk,' is in the proximate singular, but becomes in obviative singular, proximate plural, and obviative plural.
The other pattern occurs for most other consonant final noun stems and is summarized in the table below. C denotes the final consonant and the bracketed [C] denotes either consonant mutation of C or deletion of some number of stem-final phonemes. is 'duck'. TypeProximateObviativeSingular[C] ()C ()PluralC-o' ()C-o () For vowel-final stems, the general pattern is a variation of the first consonant final pattern. Namely, a single marker is used to mark all plural forms and the obviative singular form. For example, , a stem meaning 'sheep, bighorn sheep,' becomes in proximate singular but in both plural forms and the obviative singular.
Verbs
Verb categorization Verbs are divided into classes depending on the transitivity and animacy of their argument(s). Transitivity of a verb affects how many arguments are affixed to the verb. Notice in the examples below the usage of the transitive form requires the addition of INAN, the inanimate marker for the object (the shoes). Verbal inflection also depends on "orders" like imperative.
Intransitive, Animate Subject (AI)
Transitive, Inanimate Object (TI)
Initial change Initial change (IC) can mark tense and aspect (in particular, "present tense and ongoing aspect or present perfect tense and aspect") under affirmative and conjunct orders. Differing phonological changes occur depending on the first vowel of the stem. If the vowel is short, it is lengthened. For example, 'to be red' becomes 'it is red'. Otherwise, an infix is placed before the first vowel. The infix is either or and is determined based on harmony with the long vowel. For example, ('to walk downward') becomes ('I am walking downward').
If the first vowel is short and is followed by an , some speakers treat the as a vowel and use the infix or to mark initial change. Other speakers treat the as a consonant and perform the vowel lengthening process instead.
An irregular form of initial change affects some vowel-initial preverbs by appending an before the first vowel, rather than the ordinary that would be prepended to avoid a vowel-initial word. For example, the imperfective morpheme becomes instead of the expected when prefixing verbs that would undergo initial change.
Agreement In sentences with an explicit noun phrase, separate from the verb, the verb agrees with the noun in terms of animacy, number, and whether the noun is proximate or obviative. The grammatical category, including person, of the noun also needs to agree with the verb. Note that the categories of subject and object do not affect agreement inflection. As an example of animacy agreement, the intransitive verb for 'to fall' has a form that takes an inanimate subject, (PAST-on top-fall(II)-0S) and a form that takes an animate subject, .