Zincirli Höyük is an archaeological site located in the Anti-Taurus Mountains of modern Turkey's Gaziantep Province. During its time under the control of the Neo-Assyrian Empire (c. 700 BC) it was called, by them, Sam'al.Miller, Robert D., "The Barrakab Inscription", Covenant and Grace in the Old Testament: Assyrian Propaganda and Israelite Faith, Piscataway, NJ, USA: Gorgias Press, pp. 49-76, (2012).Giusfredi, Federico; Pisaniello, Valerio, "The population, the language and the history of Yadiya/Sam'al", Beyond All Boundaries. Anatolia in the 1st Millennium BC (Orbis Biblicus et Orientalis 295), Peeters, pp. 189-223, (2021). . It was founded at least as far back as the Early Bronze Age and thrived between 3000 and 2000 BC, and on the highest part of the upper mound was found a walled citadel of the Middle Bronze Age (ca. 2000–1600 BC).Chicago-Tubingen Expedition to Zincirli, (2018). "Site and Setting", The University of Chicago.
Location Zinjirli Höyük is located at the northern end of the Kara Su river valley. The site is situated on the western side of the valley at the base of the Amanus Mountains, and measures approximately 40 ha in area.Location map showing Zincirli among other major Bronze and Iron Age sites. from Jesse Casana, Jason T. Herrmann 2010, Settlement History and Urban Planning at Zincirli Höyük, Southern Turkey. Its location was on the overland route that connected Carchemish to the fertile Cilician plain and further on west to Anatolia.
The city was protected by a double, almost circular wall with a diameter of 720 to 800 meters. Each of the two walls, made of air-dried clay bricks, was over three meters thick with the distance between them being seven meters. The walls had around 100 guard towers around, and three entrances. The residential area was located within the city walls.
On the citadel of Samal there were several palaces of Bit-hilani type, i.e. with an entrance decorated with wooden columns and a transverse main room. The citadel also contained palaces from the Assyrian period, and warehouses.
History
Early Bronze Age The site of Sam'al was occupied in the Early Bronze Age III/IV (c. 2700–2100 BC).
It may be speculated if the site was a trade center on the Anatolian Trade Network, bringing metals from Anatolia into the Near East.
Middle Bronze Age
Middle Bronze II At least from c.1700 to 1650 BC Zincirli Höyük was a trading hub with the production of wine transported in a specific type of vessel, the globular flask, being part of the trade centered in the nearby ancient Syrian region of Mamma.Morgan, Kathryn R., and Seth Richardson, "Wine from Mamma: Alluharum-Pots in 17th Century BC Trade Networks", Iraq journal, Cambridge University Press, pp. 1–27, 2020. Zincirli is located only 9 km north of Tilmen Höyük, possibly the capital of the Zalpa/Zalwar kingdom, which eventually became one of the twenty vassal small states of the Yamhad kingdom based on Aleppo.Turkish Archaeological News, (9 March 2019). "Tilmen Höyük": "...Bahadir Alkım, in turn, hypothesised that Tilmen Höyük [Zalpa/Zalwar] was the capital of one of the twenty small states that together formed the kingdom of Yamhad..."
New excavations revealed a monumental complex in the Middle Bronze Age II (ca. 1800–1700 BC), and another structure (Complex DD) that was destroyed in the mid to late 17th century BC, maybe by Hititte king Hattusili I.Herrmann, Virginia, et al., (2020). "Iron Age Urbanization and Middle Bronze Age Networks at Zincirli Höyük: Recent Results from the Chicago-Tübingen Excavations", in ASOR 2020 Annual Meeting. This event was recently radiocarbon-dated to sometime between 1632 and 1610 BC,Herrman et al., (2023). "New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology from the Syro-Anatolian frontier", in: Antiquity, 97(391), February 2023, p. 2: "....Here, we present evidence for the absolute and relative chronology of a late Middle Bronze Age (MB) II destruction event at Zincirli (Türkiye), a site on the border between the Syrian and Anatolian spheres. The destruction is dated with unusual precision by 11 short-lived radiocarbon samples from closed contexts, and the assemblage of pottery found therein affords key synchronisms with final Middle Bronze Age strata at other sites in the Northern Levant, Cilicia and Anatolia..." . during the late Middle Bronze Age II (ca. 1700–1600 BC).Herrman et al., (2023). "New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology from the Syro-Anatolian frontier", in: Antiquity, Volume 97, Issue 391, February 2023, pp. 5–6: "...The assemblage of complete vessels from Zincirli Area 2 allows comparison with late MB II sites across the Northern Levant and Cilicia...[and] comparisons with the final MB II repertoires at Tilmen Höyük (Levels IIb–c), Alalakh (Level VII), Ebla (Mardikh IIIB2), Kinet Höyük (Period 16), Umm el-Marra (Period IIIa–c), Zeytinli Bahçe Höyük (Building VII) and Lidar Höyük (Phase 5/Level 8)..."
Excavations by Chicago-Tubingen Expedition revealed that the bit-hilani palace of Hilani I in Zincirli (believed by the early German excavators to be from Iron Age Sam'al period) was actually a large broadroom temple from Middle Bronze Age II, lasting roughly from 1800 to 1650 BC, destroyed in mid- to late 17th century BC based on 10 radiocarbon dates.Virginia R. Herrmann and David Schloen, "Middle Bronze Age Zincirli: The Date of "Hilani I" and the End of Middle Bronze II", Bulletin of the American Schools of Oriental Research, 385, pp. 33–51, May 2021. Additional samples later produced a radiocarbon date of c. 1632–1610 BC for the destruction.Herrmann, Virginia R., et al, "New evidence for Middle Bronze Age chronology from the Syro-Anatolian frontier", Antiquity, 97(393), pp. 1–20, (2023). . The archaeological site of Zincirli was not abandoned after Hattusili I's sack sometime around 1632 to 1610 BC, as there is recent evidence of Hittite occupation during the Late Bronze Age.
In 2020, the nearby site of Tilmen Höyük was "convincingly identified" with the ancient 'Zalpa' in the Annals of Ḫattušili I.The University of Chicago, (2018). "Annals of Ḫattušili I (mid- to late 17th cent. BC)", in Chicago-Tubingen Expedition to Zincirli, Retrieved 24 February 2021. There is also another ancient town of Zalpa, located at Zalpuwa to the north of Ḫattuša near the Black Sea. That northern Zalpa was mentioned in the Hittite "Queen of Kanesh" myth. Scholars were formerly unsure about the location of 'Zalpa' that Hattusili I destroyed, and thought it was in the north.
Late Bronze The site was thought to have been abandoned during the Hittite and Mitanni periods, but excavations in 2021 season showed evidence of occupation during the Late Bronze Age in Hittite times (ca. 1600–1180 BC).Herrmann, Virginia R., et al., (2022). "Comparing Bronze and Iron Age Urbanism, Economy, and Environment in Zincirli, Turkey: Results from the 2021 Excavation", 2022 ASOR Annual Meeting, Abstract Booklet, Boston, November 16–19, p. 88: "Among the discoveries this season was the first evidence of occupation at Zincirli during the Late Bronze Age under Hittite hegemony."
Iron Age
The Iron Age II town of Zincirli was founded about 900 BC, according to the inscription of Kilamuwa. The name of Gabbar suggests that he was an Aramaean chieftain seizing power in the predominantly Luwian area.Edward Lipiński 2000, The Aramaeans: Their Ancient History, Culture, Religion. , 9042908599. p.238
The area flourished in the Iron Age (Iron IIA period), initially under Luwian-speaking Neo-Hittites, and the city soon had become a kingdom. In the 9th and 8th century BC it came under control of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and by the 7th century BC had become a directly ruled Assyrian province.
Aramean kingdom The Aramean kingdom flourished here from the early 900s to 713 BC, with its capital at Zinjirli.Kilamuwa and the Kings of Sam’al. West Semitic Research Project. University of Southern California, Dornsife Its native Samalian language name was Yādiya or Ya'diya. The Assyrians knew it as Sam'al, and in Aramaic it was known as Ya'udi, or Yaudi. This was a middle power of the Middle-East in the early first millennium BC.
A dynasty of eleven Aramean kings ruled this city state, that was formerly Luwian. Its location was near the Nur Mountains. The monumental inscription of Kilamuwa, the fifth king of the dynasty, is the earliest inscription that provides us with historical information. Four more of these kings have also left inscriptions later. These are the main sources for historical data about this time period.
The Aramean dynasty founder was king Gabbar, dated around 900 BC. Royal steles and stone tablets from the period of Panamuwa II are also important.
Also the Kilamuwa scepter has been found here in 1943. It is a small gold object inscribed in a similar old type of Phoenician alphabet.Editio princeps: Felix von Luschan, Die Kleinfunde von Sendschirli . Herausgabe und Ergänzung besorgt von Walter Andrae (Mitteilungen aus den orientalischen Sammlungen, Heft XV; Berlin 1943) 102, Abb. 124, Tf. 47f-g (the book was reviewed by K. Galline; in BiOr 5 fl948 115–120).
The kingdom became a middle power at the end of the 10th century BC. It had expanded from being a city state and gained territories from Carchemish, around Adana from Quwê and remained independent. It didn't become part of Cilicia.
Assyrian expansion In 859 BC, Shalmaneser III moved westward with his army to Lutibu in Sam’al, where he fought a hostile coalition of kings including a ruler of Sam’al named Hayyanu, as well as Sapalulme of Patina (also known as Suppiluliuma (Pattin)). And soon after, there was also a battle near Alimus (Aliṣir/Alimush), the fortified city of the same Sapalulme the Patinean, where Shalmaneser again fought an anti-Assyrian coalition. Again, kings from Sam’al, Patina, Bit-Adini, Karkemiš, and others were members of this coalition. Shalmaneser defeated them.Nathan Lovejoy 2023, Political and Cultic Landscapes in the Northeast Mediterranean, ca. 1175-675 BCE: Institutional Change and Identity Making. PhD Thesis. New York University Hayyanu, king of Sam'al was again taking part, and later he was forced to pay tribute to Shalmaneser at the city of Dabigu along with others of these kings.
Hayyanu didn't participate in the Battle of Qarqar in 853 BC, and instead paid tribute to Shalmaneser III. This battle was fought to the south in Syria around Hama. So Assyria did not pursue then its expansion to the Western areas.
The campaign of Assyria in 825 BC occupied the vital territories of Sam'al, Quwê had been defeated, but it had been reorganised as Denyen. After the death of Shalmaneser III, Ya'udi again became independent.
Some rulers of Sam'al had aggressive expansionist politics; others acceded to one of the anti-Assyrian Syrian coalition. Assyrian sources are not clear regarding Sam'al. Ya'udi was one of Assyria's satellite states in the annals of Shalmaneser III. Though around 830 BC Azitawadda, king of Denyen, states Ya'udi is his satellite country – at the same time, Kilamuwa mentions on his stela that he hired Assyria against Denyen.
Other sources from the same period mention Ya'udi as a satellite state of Denyen and Assyria wanted to occupy this territory. Kilamuva might offer for Deyen to be a satellite state. Before this, he should defeat his greatest foe, Azitawadda. Assyrians won over Denyen and Sam'al in 825 BC. Sam'al became independent after the death of Shalmaneser III.
There is an alternative opinion which states that Ya'udi and Sam'al were originally separate royal houses. Indeed, the List of Neo-Hittite kings attests Y'adiya/Ya'udi and Sam'al as two separate royal houses, Ya'udi being the older of the two.
Gabar, the founder of Ya'udi, and his successors became a member of the Assyrian satellites.
The Kingdom of Sam'al was founded by Hayyanu and his successor was Ahabbu of Siri'laya (Zincirli) in 854 BC.