The Cerrado languages (also referred to as Amazonian Jê) are a branch of the Jê languages constituted by the Goyaz Jê languages and Akuwẽ (Central Jê).
Sound changes from Proto-Jê to Proto-Cerrado The occurrence of the consonant */g/ in Proto-Cerrado (as in */g/õt ‘to sleep’, */g/õ ‘to give’, */g/aj’ ‘you’) is believed to be an innovation; it has been claimed to have been inserted in onsetless-stressed syllables.
The Proto-Cerrado diphthongs *wa and *ja are believed to continue Proto-Jê monophthongs, which have been reconstructed as *ô and *ê₂. Other vowels which have been claimed to have innovated in Proto-Cerrado are: *ô (goes back to an unrounded vowel, reconstructed as Proto-Jê *ə̂₁); *u (a merger of earlier *u₁ and *u₂, distinguished in the Southern Jê languages as o and u, respectively); *ũ (a merger of earlier *ũ₁ and *ũ₂, distinguished as ũ and ỹ in Kaingang and as ũ and õ in Laklãnõ); *ə̃ (a merger of earlier *ə̃ and *ỹ, distinguished as ỹ and ĩ in Kaingang and as õ and ẽ in Laklãnõ); all vowels in the Proto-Jê unstressed syllables of the shape *pV- were neutralized in the Cerrado languages: Proto-Cerrado *pᵊ- (> Proto-Goyaz Jê *py-/*pu-, Proto-Akuwẽ *pi-).
Sound changes from Proto-Cerrado to the daughter languages Onsets The simple onset inventory of Proto-Cerrado is */p m w t n ɾ c ɲ j k ŋ g/, and the only complex onsets are */pɾ mɾ kɾ ŋɾ/.
Their reflexes in the daughter branches are shown below.
Proto-Cerrado Proto-Goyaz Jê Proto-Akuwẽ oral nucleus nasal nucleus oral nucleus nasal nucleus oral nucleus(Proto-Cerradonon-high vowel) oral nucleus(Proto-Cerradohigh vowel) before a diphthong nasal nucleus *p */p/ *p */p/ *p */p/ *b */b/ N/A *m */b/ *mb */m/ *m */m/ *mb */m/ *m */m/ *pr */pɾ/ *pr */pɾ/ *pr */pɾ/ N/A *mr */bɾ/ *mbr */mɾ/ *mr */mɾ/ *mbr */mɾ/ *mr */mɾ/ N/A *w */w/ *b */b/ *w */w/ *t */t/ *t */t/ *t */t/ *d */d/ *∅ *n */d/ *nd */n/ *n */n/ *nd */n/ *n */n/ N/A *r */ɾ/ *r */ɾ/ *r */ɾ/ *∅ *r */ɾ/ *c */c/ *c */c/ *c */c/ *ĵ */ɟ/, *h */h/ (before *i) *∅ *c */c/ *nĵ */ɲ/ N/A *nĵ */ɲ/ N/A N/A *j */j/ *ñ */j/ *ĵ (stressed)/*j (unstressed) */ĵ/ *ñ */ĵ/ *ĵ */ĵ/, *c */c/ (before *i) *k */k/ *ñ */ĵ/ *k */k/ *k */k/ *k */k/(unstressed *ka- > *wa-) *h */h/ *∅ *k */k/ *ŋg */ŋ/ *ŋ */ŋ/ *ŋg */ŋ/ *ŋ */ŋ/ N/A *kr */kɾ/ *kr */kɾ/ *kr */kɾ/ *kr */kɾ/ *ŋgr */ŋɾ/ *ŋr */ŋɾ/ *ŋgr */ŋɾ/ *ŋr */ŋɾ/ N/A *g */g/ *g */g/ *ŋ */g/ *g */g/ N/A
Nuclei The inventory of the Proto-Cerrado monophthongs is reconstructed as follows.
oralnasal*i */i/*y */ɨ/*u */u/*ĩ */ĩ/*ỹ */ɨ̃/*ê */e/*ə̂ */ɘ/*ô */o/*e */ɛ/*ə */ɜ/*o */ɔ/*ẽ */ɛ̃/*ə̃ */ɜ̃/*õ */ɔ̃/*a */a/
In addition, two diphthongs can be reconstructed, */wa/ and */ja/.
The following table shows the usual reflexes of the Proto-Cerrado nuclei in Proto-Goyaz Jê and in Proto-Akuwẽ. The latter group shows a chain vowel shift known as the Akuwẽ/Central Jê vowel shift.
Proto-Cerrado Proto-Goyaz Jê Proto-Akuwẽ *a */a/ *a */a/,*ã */ã/ (before *-m’) *a */a/ *ə */ɜ/ *ə */ɜ/ *e */ɛ/, *ê */e/ (before a dental coda) *ə̂ */ɘ/ *ə̂ */ɘ/ *y */ɨ/ *y */ɨ/,*ə */ɜ/ (after a velar onset),*ỹ */ɨ̃/ (before *-m’) *ə */ə/ *o */ɔ/ *o */ɔ/ *o */ɔ/ *ô */o/ *ô */o/ *u */u/ *u */u/ *u */u/,*ũ */ũ/ (before *-m’) *wa */wa/ *wa */wa/, *û */ua/, *wə̂ */wɘ/ (in closed syllables) *wa */wa/ *e */ɛ/ *e */ɛ/ *ê */e/ *ê */e/ *ê */e/ *i */i/ *i */i/ *i */i/ *ja */ja/ *jê */je/, *î */ia/ *ĵa */ɟa/ *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ *ə̃ */ɜ̃/ *ə̃ */ə̃/ *ỹ */ɨ̃/ *ỹ */ɨ̃/ *õ */ɔ̃/ *õ */ɔ̃/ *õ */ɔ̃/ *ẽ */ɛ̃/ *ẽ */ɛ̃/ *ẽ */ɛ̃/ *ĩ */ĩ/ *ĩ */ĩ/ *ĩ */ĩ/
Codas
References