The Katangese Gendarmerie (), officially the Katangese Armed Forces (), was the paramilitary force of the unrecognized State of Katanga in Central Africa from 1960 to 1963. The forces were formed upon the secession of Katanga from the Republic of the Congo with help from Belgian soldiers and former officers of the Force Publique. Belgian troops also provided much of the early training for the Gendarmerie, which was mainly composed of Katangese but largely led by Belgians and later European mercenaries.
Throughout the existence of the State of Katanga, the gendarmes sporadically fought various tribes and the Congolese National Army (ANC). In February 1961 the Gendarmerie initiated a series of operations aimed at suppressing anti-secessionist rebels of the Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT) in northern Katanga. The campaign was largely successful, but the fighting led to atrocities and gendarmes were halted by forces of the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC) during the Battle of Kabalo in April 1961. ONUC then initiated efforts to remove foreign mercenaries from the Gendarmerie, and launched Operation Rum Punch to arrest them in August 1961. They came into conflict with ONUC three times afterwards, in Operation Morthor (September 1961), Operation UNOKAT (December 1961), and Operation Grandslam (December 1962). Operation Grandslam marked the end of the Katangese secession in January 1963.
After the dissolution of the secessionist state, many gendarmes returned to civilian life or were integrated into the ANC. However, around 8,000 refused to do so, and many of these kept their arms and roamed North Rhodesia, Angola and Katanga. Many crossed the Congo border into Angola (then a Portuguese colony) where Portuguese colonial authorities assisted and trained them. They were involved in several mutinies and attempted invasions of the Congo, most notably the Stanleyville mutinies in 1966 and 1967.
After 1967, around 2,500 gendarmes were present in Angola, where they were reorganized as the Congolese National Liberation Front (FLNC) and fought in the Angolan War of Independence on the side of the Portuguese government against the Angolan nationalist movements of the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA) and National Union for the Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). When the war ended in 1975, they fought in the Angolan Civil War against the National Liberation Front of Angola (FNLA). The FLNC was involved in the Shaba I and II attempted invasions of Katanga. Split into factions after the war, the tigres emerged and played a decisive role in the First Congo War. There has since been little gendarme presence, but they have emerged as a symbol of secessionist thinking.
Origins
Background
The Belgian Congo was established from the Congo Free State in 1908. Belgium retained control of the colony until it gained independence as the Republic of the Congo on 30 June 1960. Though the nation had elected officials including Joseph Kasa-Vubu as president, Patrice Lumumba as prime minister, and various bodies including a senate and assembly, upon independence its affairs quickly devolved into chaos. Congolese soldiers mutinied against their white commanders in the Force Publique on 5 July. This mutiny signaled the beginning of a large revolt and attacks on white people in the Congo. In response, Belgium sent troops into the region to maintain order and protect their commercial interests, without the permission of the Congolese state.
Largely in response to Belgian interference, on 11 July Katanga Province announced its secession from the Republic of the Congo under the leadership of Moise Tshombe. The state also represented Belgian mining interests. The State of Katanga began establishing the agencies necessary for a state to function independently, with a constitution and ministers. Lumumba called for United Nations (UN) intervention to end various secession movements in the country. The UN "called upon" Belgium to leave the Congo in Resolution 143 adopted on 14 July that also authorized the creation of the United Nations Operation in the Congo (ONUC), a multinational peacekeeping force aimed at helping "the Congolese government restore and maintain the political independence and territorial integrity of the Congo." By the end of July, 8,400 UN troops had been deployed to the Congo.
Dag Hammarskjöld, the Secretary-General of the United Nations, and Ralph Bunche, his special representative, believed that engaging in Katanga would result in fighting, and refused to allow peacekeepers to enter the region. In reality, Katanga at the time had an ill-trained fighting force, mainly made up of dozens of Belgian officers. United Nations Security Council Resolution 146, passed on 9 August, supplemented Resolution 143 and stated that "the entry of the United Nations Force into the province of Katanga is necessary for the full implementation of the present resolution". However, the resolution also mandated that the "United Nations Force in the Congo will not be a party to or in any way intervene in or be used to influence the outcome of any internal conflict, constitutional or otherwise." Frustrated, Lumumba appealed to Eastern Bloc nations for military assistance, resulting in his conflict with Kasa-Vubu and ultimately his removal from power in September and eventual murder in January 1961. In response to Lumumba's removal, his political allies gathered in Stanleyville in the eastern Congo and declared a rival regime to the central government in Léopoldville.
Formation In order to develop a stronger fighting force, Katanga (with the help of Belgians) disarmed all Force Publique troops based in Camp Massart except for 350 Katangese soldiers. The first iteration of the army was planned to consist of 1,500 men, all Katangese. The first volunteers were primarily Lunda people from southern Katanga, who were organized by the Mwaant Yav and Tshombe's family. Throughout the year additional forces were recruited, including Luba warriors, 2,000 Bazela from Pweto, Bayeke from Bunkeya, and several white volunteers from Kaniama. By November, the Gendarmerie had 7,000 members. The army was largely organized, led, and trained by Belgians who were former Force Publique officers; the first commander of the Gendarmerie was Jean-Marie Crèvecoeur, appointed on 13 July. The majority of soldiers were Katangese. The forces were first called the "Katangese Armed Forces" in November 1960. Katanga also seized most of the assets of the Force Publique's air service, providing a nucleus for the Katangese Air Force. Joseph Yav, a native Katangese, was made minister of defence.
Much of Gendarmerie's early organization was based on the Force Publique's organization, and it was characterized by rapid advancement of many soldiers. By January 1961 there were approximately 250 former Force Publique officers serving in the Gendarmerie. They occupied all senior leadership positions and part of their salaries was paid by the Belgian government under a technical assistance programme. There were also 30–40 officers of the Belgian Land Component officially on loan to the Katangese government who either held commands in the gendarmerie, staffed the Katangese Ministry of Defence, or served as advisers. Between 50 and 100 mercenaries of various nationalities were initially present, but over the course of 1961 the Katangese government increased recruitment efforts. Three Fouga trainer aircraft were also acquired. In August, most of the Belgian officers returned to Belgium, and mercenaries began training many of the soldiers. From its formation the force struggled with divisions between various white and black commanders. Belgian officers also protested the recruitment of Frenchmen. Though South Africa officially denied Katangese requests for arms, there is evidence of a covert program supplying weapons to the Gendarmerie.
Katangese secession (1960–1963)
Early action and suppressing rebellion in northern Katanga
In the immediate aftermath of the Katangese secession, Katangese forces clashed with the Armée Nationale Congolaise (ANC) in the Kasai region. In August 1960 the region of South Kasai seceded from the Congo. The ANC launched an offensive and successfully occupied it, but the Gendarmerie and South Kasian forces successfully prevented them from making incursions into Katanga.
The Gendarmerie first saw major action in Northern Katanga in efforts to suppress the Association Générale des Baluba du Katanga (BALUBAKAT), a political party which represented the Luba people of the area and rebelled against Katangese authority. Some prominent BALUBAKAT politicians allied themselves with the Stanleyville government. On 17 October 1960, neutral zones were created in the region under a temporary agreement with the UN. In theory the region was controlled by ONUC contingents, but in reality the peacekeeping units were too weak to exercise authority. Because the rebellion threatened Katanga's communications, partially-trained soldiers and policemen were dispatched in units of around 60 people to the region to exert Katangese control. The inexperienced troops often resorted to pillaging and burning settlements. Political scientist Crawford Young suggested that the tactics were intentional and represented "little more than terrorization carried out by indiscriminate reprisals against whole regions."
On 7 January 1961 troops from Stanleyville occupied Manono in northern Katanga. Accompanying BALUBAKAT leaders declared the establishing of a new "Province of Lualaba" that extended throughout the region. The ONUC contingents were completely surprised by the takeover in Manono. Tshombe and his government accused ONUC of collaborating with the Stanleyville regime and declared that they would no longer respect the neutral zone. By late January groups of Baluba were launching attacks on railways. UN officials appealed for them to stop, but the Baluba leaders stated that they aimed to do everything within their power to weaken the Katangese government and disrupt the Katangese Gendarmerie's offensive potential. On 21 February the UN Security Council passed a resolution permitting ONUC to use military force as a last resort to prevent civil war. As the Congo was already more-or-less in a state of civil war, the resolution gave ONUC significant latitude to act. It also called for the immediate departure of all foreign military personnel and mercenaries from the country, though the use of force was not authorised to carry out the measure. Therefore, force could only be used to remove foreign soldiers and mercenaries if it was justified under the reasoning that such action would be necessary to prevent civil war.
By February 1961 the Gendarmerie was composed of around 8,600 soldiers—8,000 Katangese and 600 Europeans. On 11 February, the Katangese government announced that it would begin an offensive to eliminate the Baluba opposition in northern Katanga. Approximately 5,000 troops were earmarked for the operation, which focused on a northward offensive from Lubudi. At the same time, they were to recapture Manono, secure the area south of it, and launch attacks on Kabalo from Albertville to the east and Kongolo to the north. The Gendarmerie subsequently launched operations Banquise, Mambo, and Lotus against the BALUBAKAT rebels.