Proto-Trans–New Guinea is the reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Trans–New Guinea languages. Reconstructions have been proposed by Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley.
Phonology Proto-Trans–New Guinea is reconstructed with a typical simple Papuan inventory: five vowels ; three phonations of stops at three places , , ; plus a palatal affricate , the fricative , and the approximants . Syllables are typically (C)V, with CVC possible at the ends of words. Many of the languages have restricted tone systems.
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- |+Consonants ! !!Bilabial!!Apical!!Palatal!!Velar |- !style="text-align: left"|Plosive | p || t|| || k |- !style="text-align: left"|Prenasalised plosives | ᵐb || ⁿd | ᶮdʒ|| ᵑg |- !style="text-align: left"|Nasals | m || n|| ɲ || ŋ |- !style="text-align: left"|Fricatives | |s
!style="text-align: left"|Laterals | || l|| || |- !style="text-align: left"|Semivowels | w || || j ||
The Proto-Trans–New Guinea vowels are reconstructed as having a cross-linguistically frequent five-vowel system:
{| class="wikitable" style="text-align: center" |- |+Vowels ! ! Front !Central ! Back |- ! Close
! Mid
! Open | |a
Pronouns Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with *a~*i ablaut for singular~non-singular:
{| class=wikitable |- | I || *na || we || *ni |- | thou || *ga || you || *gi |- | s/he || *(y)a, *ua || they || *i
There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', *nu, as well as a *ja for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were dual suffixes *-li and *-t, and a plural suffix *-nV, (i.e. n plus a vowel) as well as collective number suffixes *-pi- (dual) and *-m- (plural) that functioned as inclusive we when used in the first person. (Reflexes of the collective suffixes, however, are limited geographically to the central and eastern highlands, and so might not be as old as proto-Trans–New Guinea.)
Morphology Studies group Madang, Finisterre-Huon, and Kainantu-Goroka together as part of a larger Northeast New Guinea (NENG) group on the basis of morphological evidence, such as mutually reconstructable verbal suffixes that mark subject:
Proto-Northeast New Guinea subject-marking verbal suffixes
{| class="wikitable" ! !! singular !! dual !! plural |- ! 1st person | *-Vn || *-u(l,t) || *-un, *-i |- ! 2nd person | *-an | rowspan="2" | *-i(l,t) | *-ai, *-i, *-a |- ! 3rd person | *-a, *-i || *-ai
Comparison of reconstructions of subject-marking verbal suffixes
{| class="wikitable" ! !! proto-Northeast New Guinea !! proto-Madang !! proto-Finisterre-Huon !! proto-Kainantu-Goroka !! Proto-Trans–New Guinea (tentative) |- ! 1sg | *-Vn || *-in || ? || *-u || *-Vn |- ! 2sg | *-an || *-an,*-i || *-an || *-an || *-Vn |- ! 3sg | *-a,*-i || *-a,*-an || *-a,*-i || *-ai,*-i || *-a,*-i |- ! 1du | *-u(l,t) || -*-u(l,t) || *-u(l,t) || *-ur || *-u(l,t) |- ! 2/3du | *-i(l,t) || *-i(l,t) || *-i(l,t) || ? || *-i(l,t) |- ! 1pl | *-un,*-i || *-un || *-un || *-un || |- ! 2/3pl | *-ai,*-i,*-a || *-ai,*-i || *-e,*-i || *-a ||
Lexicon Lexical words, such as *niman 'louse', may also be reconstructed:
Reflexes of *niman 'louse', which attest to an intermediate *iman in the east: Chimbu–Wahgi: Mid/Nuclear Wahgi Engan: Enga & Kewa Finisterre–Huon: Kâte , Selepet Gogodala Kainantu–Goroka: Awa , Tairora , Fore , Gende Southern Kiwai Koiarian: Managalasi Kolopom: Kimaghama , Riantana Kwale Madang: Kalam , Watiwa (Rai Coast) , Sirva (Adelbert) Mek: Kosarek Marori Paniai Lakes: Ekari (metathesis?) Timor–Alor–Pantar: Western Pantar , Oirata (metathesis?) Wiru Questionable branches: Pauwasi: Yafi Central Sentani
The Proto-Trans–New Guinea negative is reconstructed as *ma-. Negatives in Trans–New Guinea languages usually have either an mV- or nV- form. *mV (often *ma): Angaatɨha (Angan); Apalɨ, Waskia, Kalam (Madang); Kâte, Kombe (Finisterre-Huon) *na ~ *naa: Awara (Finisterre-Huon); Enga, Ku Waru, Middle Wahgi (Chimbu-Wahgi); Oksapmin
Reconstructions + Proto-Trans-New Guinea reconstructions body parts arm, forearm *mbena belly, internal organs *mundun blood *ke(nj,s)a bone *kondaC brain *muk[V] breast *amu buttocks *simbi + modifier cheek *mVkVm claw, hand *sikal or *sakil ear *kand(i,e)k[V] excrement 1 [same as 'guts'] excrement 2 *ata eye 1 (cf. egg 2) *(ŋg,k)iti-maŋgV eye 2 *ŋg(a,u)mu eye 3 *nVpV fingernail *(mb,p)(i,u)t(iu)C foot, lower leg *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C] forehead, head *mVtVna guts, intestines, bowels *sim(i,u), *simbi hair 1 *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V] hair 2, leaf *iti head 1 *kV(mb,p)utu head 2 *mVtVna heart 1 (cf. belly, egg 2) *mundu-maŋgV heart 2 *simu heart 3 *kamu knee *(ŋg,k)atuk leg 1 *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C] leg 2, calf *kitu liver *[ma]pVn milk, sap *muk mouth, teeth *maŋgat[a] navel *simu + modifier neck 1 *k(a,e)(nd,t)ak neck 2, nape, side of *kuma(n,ŋ)[V] nose *mundu penis *mo saliva *si(mb,p)at[V] shoulder *kinV skin *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu testicles *walaka tongue 1 *mbilaŋ tongue 2 *me(l,n)e tooth 1 (see mouth) tooth 2 *titi urine *[si]si, *siti, *pisi kin terms brother, older *[mb]amba father *apa, *mbapa grandparent *apus[i] husband, man *ambi mother, free form *am(a,i,u) mother, bound form *na- sibling, older *nan(a,i) sibling, older same sex *[mb]amba sister *aya age-gender and other social categories baby *ŋaŋa boy *nV man, husband *ambi orphan, widow & child *mbeŋga-masi woman, female *panV birds, bird parts bird 1 *n[e]i bird 2 *yaka[i] cassowary *ku[y]a egg 1 *mun(a,e,i)ka egg 2, fruit, seed *maŋgV tail *a(mb,m)u wing *mbutu insects butterfly *apa[pa]ta fly *ŋgambu louse *niman, *iman mosquito *kasin plants, plant parts bark *ka(nd,t)ap[u] casuarina *kal(a,i)pV fruit, seed (cf. egg 2) *maŋgV leaf 1, hair *iti leaf 2 *sasak root *kindil sap, milk *muk taro *mV tree, wood *inda inanimate world ashes 1 *sumbu ashes 2 *kambu-sumbu ashes 3 *la(ŋg,k)a cloud 1, sky *samb[V] cloud 2 *ka(mb,p)utu fire 1 *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p fire 2 *inda fire 3 *kambu flame *mbalaŋ ground 1 *man[a] ground 2 *maka[n] lightning, light *(mb,m)elak moon 1 *takVn[V] moon 2 *kal(a,i)m morning *k(i,u)tuma + X night *k(i,u)tuma sand *sa(ŋg,k)asiŋ sky 1, cloud *samb[V] thunder, sky 2 *kumut, *tumuk smoke 1 *kambu(s,t)(a,u) smoke 2 *kambu-la(ŋg,k)a stone 1 *kamb(a,u)na stone 2 *[na]muna sun 1 *kamali sun 2 *ketane water 1 *ok[V] water 2 *nok wind 1 *kumbutu wind 2, breeze *pinVm artefacts axe *tu fence *wati netbag 1 *kun netbag 2 *at(i,u) string, rope *asi intangible cultural concepts instructions, language, word, speech *mana mind, thought *n(o,u)man name 1 *imbi name 2, who *wani shadow, spirit *k(aw,o)nan song, type of *saŋ witchcraft *kum independent pronouns (for subject, object, possessor) 1 singular *na 2 singular *ŋga 3 singular *ya 3 singular *wa 1 plural *ni, *nu 1 plural *ni 2 plural *ŋgi, *ki 1 dual *niLi, *nuLi 2 dual *ŋgiLi, *kiLi 3 dual *iLi verbal suffixes marking person-number of subject 1 singular *-Vn 2 singular *-an 1 dual *-uL 2/3 dual *-iL 1 plural *-un 1 singular different subject *-pa verbs be (live, stay, sit) *mVna- bite *s(i,u)- blow *pu + verb break *pa(ŋg,k)- burn *nd(a,e,i)- burn, light a fire *ki- carry (on back, shoulder) *kak(i,u)- come *me- cook *andu- cut, chop *tVk- die *kumV- do, make *ti- dream *kina(mb,p)- eat, drink *na- fly, flutter *putu(putu)- give *mV- go 1 *pu- go 2 *yata- hit *tu- know, hear, see *nVŋg- laugh *ŋgiti (+ verb) live, be, sit see 'be' put *(m,p)a(l,t)V- say, speak *nde- see, know, perceive *nVŋg- shoot *tVmV- sleep 1, lie down *kin(i,u)[m] sleep 2 *p(e,i)t(e,i)o- speak, talk *nde- spit *kasipa- stand *t(a,e,i)k[V]- swell *su + verb take *(nd,t)a- tie *ndiŋga-, *ndaŋgi turn (oneself) *mbuli[ki] + verb urinate *X + *si- (urine + verb) vomit *mVŋ[g]V ti- adjectives blue *muk[V] cold *kukam(o,u) dry *ŋgatata full *t(o,u)k(i,u) ti- heavy *kenda long *k(o,u)t(u,i)p new *kVtak short *tumba straight *tutu[tu]ku conjunctions and *ito negatives not *ma- (+ verb) numerals two *ta(l,t)(a,e)
Lexical comparison
+ Body parts family language head hair ear eye nose tooth tongue leg blood bone skin breast Trans–New Guinea Proto-Trans–New Guinea *kobutu; *kV(mb,p)utu; *mUtUna; *mVtVna *iti; *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V]; *zumun *ka(nd,t)(i,e)C; *kat(i,e)C; *tVmV(d) *g(a,u)mu; *ŋg(a,u)mu; *(ŋg,k)iti [maŋgV]; *nVpV *mundu; *mutu *magata; *maŋgat[a]; *titi *balaŋ; *mbilaŋ; *me(l,n)e; *me(n,l)e *kani(n); *k(a,o)ond(a,o)C; *kitu *ke(ñj,s)a; *kesa *kondaC; *kwata(l,n) *gatapu; *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu *amu West Bomberai Proto-Mbaham–Iha *kaˈnda *kʷⁱɛr *wⁱɛk *ˈtɔkar *pak *sɔn Asmat–Kamoro Proto-Asmat–Kamrau *uɸu *ɸini *jiɸ[a/o]ne *manaN *miC *siC *komane *mawu *ese *eake *awo Ok–Oksapmin Proto-Ok-Oksapmin *kiin *(mu)duum *fV(lV)ŋ *xeim Greater Awyu Proto-Awyu-Dumut *kɑibɑn; *xaiban *möxö; *muk; *ron *turun *kerop *togut *fɔgat; *fɔgɛt; *pogɑt *gom *kɑt; *xa(t) *ɑm; *om Kayagaric Proto-Gondu River *toxom *upm *itipaːm *sakam *jup *o[x/ɣ]om *maetap *apit *jes *nomop *pip *etum Kolopom Proto-Kolopom *tipV; *mVrV[w] *muen[a] ? *mVrVk; *[ndz][o/u]an *VnV *ŋgon *t[e]r[a]k *mepreŋg *iendz *mam Anim Proto-Fly River *kindV[C] *kam *sas *mbai[a]ŋg; *ɸia[u] Anim Proto-Inland Gulf *gia *tu; *jeja *kuɸino *dasi *ta; *bese *koda; *sasa *idini *ɸia *nikopi; *ko[j]ipo *jono Anim Proto-Lower Fly River *duɾumə; *duɾum *towap *baɾid *miw *suwə; *kam; *su *jimə; *jim *nauɾə *naɾak(ə); *baig *bub Anim Proto-Marind *pa *kembet, *kambet *kind *aŋgi₂p *maŋgat *inum *tegu *do *haiau, *hiau *ugu *bub Marori Morori Gogodala-Suki Gogodala Kiwaian Proto-Kiwai *kepuɾu *mus[ua] *gaɾe *idomaɾi *wodi *ibo(-nVɾV) *uototoɾo[p/b]e *sakiɾo *kaɾima; *sa[w]i *soɾo *tama *amo Paniai Lakes Ekari (Paniai Lake dialect) migo iyo peka juma egó etá emo mitoo kadó ama Dani Dani, Lower Grand Valley (Tangma dialect) Somahai Momuna Mek Proto-Mek *p[ɔ]t[ɔ]ŋ *aᵓ *atiŋ *jo̝ *se̝l[ija]mu *jan *e̝ne̝ŋ *jɔk *mɔᵘm Awin-Pa Proto-Kamula-Elevala *ke̝ba *m[ɔ/o̝]d[ɔ/o̝] *kinɔ *kine̝ *bate̝ *taⁱ *tama *ke̝dɔ East Strickland Gobasi Duna-Bogaya Duna ; ; ; ; ; Duna-Bogaya Bogaya ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Bosavi Kaluli ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; } ; Kutubu Proto-Lake Kutubu *uni *iti *hʲĩ *sabe *mete *atu *kotage *kigi *ga[o/u] *hʲokõ Enga-Kewa-Huli Enga (Sari dialect) Wiru Wiru ; ; Chimbu-Wahgi Kuman ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Madang Proto-Madang *gat(a,i)(m) *imunu *kaun(i) *amu *mutu(gu) *make *mele *kani(n) *ka(d,r)a; *kara *kwaten *ga(n,r)a *amu(na) Finisterre Mungkip ; ; ; ; ; ; Huon Selepet ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; ; Kainantu-Goroka Proto-Eastern Kainantu-Goroka *-'no-N; *pia- *ä-Q-ra-N *-hi-Q *-mäpi-V *nade-V *nä-N Kainantu-Goroka Proto-Eastern Kainantu *piᵄtɐ *jɐᵘsi *ɑːtoː *wu *ipi *wɐⁱ *m₂ɑːpiɾi *ipu *wi[ʔt]ipɐ *muʔjɑːni *nɑːNmɐ Kainantu-Goroka Proto-Northern Kainantu *noːN *jɐᵘ *ɑːʔ *u *siʔ *wɐj *[m/n][ɐⁱ]piɾ *tɐɾ *nɑːɾeː *(ɐ-)jɐNpɐ *nɑːN Angan Simbari Turama-Kikori Proto-Rumu-Omati *mab *b[au]t *go̝ *isĩ *ju *magu *tãᵋ *tab *sõ̝ Goilalan Fuyug ; ; ; ; ; Goilalan Tauade Greater Binanderean Proto-Binandere *ciro; *giti *tu *dibe; *diti *di *VwVwV *ju; *or{a,o}rә *bobo; *wetu *tamә *ami Koiarian Proto-Koiarian *fómo *ni *uri *taɣo *vata *amu Kwalean Proto-Kwalean (Ross) *iku(va) *(u)bu(i)vi(ma) *ʒaʒore *vono(ne); *wano(ne) *ruu *esi(ne) *ahiri *n(a)u(ne) Kwalean Proto-Humene-Uare (Usher) *igu *ubuma *jajɔɾɛ *ɣɔnɔnɛ *majanɛ *ɔda *ɾɔo̝ *e̝tinɛ *ahe̝ɾe̝ *nuunɛ Manubaran Proto-Manubaran (Ross) *ada *weʔia *ane-ma *ne(u) *uru-ma *gade *afie *[n,y]u-ka *nena *roʔ(o,a) Manubaran Proto-Mount Brown (Usher) *ada *u[w]e[t/k]a *anema *ne *uɾuma *gade *api[j]e *daweʔa *nena *ɾoʔo *sisu Yareban Proto-Musa River *bo-tai *idi *ome *nai-tai *iboʔo *ni[ʔ]o *meana *buɾi *iwa *tai *ope *ama Mailuan Mailu (Ilai dialect) Dagan Daga