The Turkish migrant crisis, sometimes referred to as the Turkish refugee crisis, was a period during the 2010s characterised by a high number of people migrating to Turkey. Turkey received the highest number of registered refugees of any country or territory each year from 2014 to 2019, and had the world's largest refugee population according to the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR). The majority were refugees of the Syrian Civil War, numbering 3.6 million . In 2018, the UNHCR reported that Turkey hosted 63.4% of all "registered Syrian refugees."
Turkey's migrant crisis is a part of the wider European migrant crisis. On 20 March 2016, a deal between the EU and Turkey to tackle the migrant crisis formally came into effect, which was intended to limit the influx of irregular migrants entering the EU through Turkey. In December 2020, the contract expired and the EU extended it until 2022, giving an extra €485 million in aid for refugees hosted by Turkey. The migrant crisis has had a significant impact on Turkey's relationship with the EU.Beken Saatçioğlu, "The European Union's refugee crisis and rising functionalism in EU-Turkey relations." Turkish Studies 21.2 (2020): 169–187.
In response to the crisis, Turkey passed the Law on Foreigners and International Protection and the Temporary Protection, established the Syria–Turkey barrier and the Iran–Turkey barrier to stop smuggling and improve security, and negotiated ceasefires in Syria in order to establish safe zones for civilians to prevent displacement.
Major refugee flows
Immigration to Turkey has historical roots in the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire. Beginning in the late 18th century until the end of the 20th century, an estimated 10 million Ottoman Muslim citizens, the Muhacir and their descendants born after the onset of the dissolution of the Ottoman Empire emigrated to Thrace and Anatolia.Sarah A.S. Isla Rosser-Owen, MA Near and Middle Eastern Studies (thesis). The First 'Circassian Exodus' to the Ottoman Empire (1858–1867), and the Ottoman Response, Based on the Accounts of Contemporary British Observers. Page 16: "... with one estimate showing that the indigenous population of the entire north-western Caucasus was reduced by a massive 94 percent". Text of citation: "The estimates of Russian historian Narochnitskii, in Richmond, ch. 4, p. 5. Stephen Shenfield notes a similar rate of reduction with less than 10 percent of the Circassians (including the Abkhazians) remaining. (Stephen Shenfield, "The Circassians: A Forgotten Genocide?", in The Massacre in History, p. 154.)" Turkey became a country of immigration again beginning in the 1980s when crises throughout the Middle East gave rise to wave after wave of refugees seeking safe haven.
The most important factors driving immigration to Turkey are armed conflict, ethnic intolerance, religious fundamentalism, and political tensions.Ahmet îçduygu, 1996, Transit Migrants in Turkey, Boğaziçi Journal, Vol. 10, No. 1-2, p. 127 A large influx of refugees came from Iraq from the 1980s.Ihlamur-Öner, S. G. (2014). “Turkey’s Refugee Regime Stretched to the Limit? The Case of Iraqi And Syrian Refugee Flows”, Perceptions, Autumn 2013, Volume Xviii, Number 3, Pp. 191–228.
Influx from the Iran-Iraq War The largest group of refugees had been Iranians, until the Syrian civil war. The first influx were Iranians fleeing from the Iranian Revolution in 1980; the Iran–Iraq War began on September 22 of the same year. Both the revolution and the war brought a total of 1.5 million Iranians to Turkey between 1980-1991.Latif, D. (2002). “Refugee Policy of the Turkish Republic”, The Turkish Year Book, Vol. Xxxiii, Pp. 12. These refugees were not recognized as asylum seekers under the terms of the Geneva Convention, because they entered and stayed as tourists; making them Iranian diaspora. The Baháʼí Faith had about 350,000 believers in Iran. According to the UN Special Representative, since 1979, many Baháʼí have left Iran illegally due to state-sanctioned persecution. They often go to Turkey and attempt to continue to the West.UN General Assembly, A/52/472, 15 October 1997, the expulsion of members of Bahá'í Faith
During the same period, 51,542 Iraqis (Iraqis in Turkey) became refugees in Turkey.Kaynak, M. et al. (1992). Iraklı Sığınmacılar ve Türkiye (1988–1991), Ankara: Tanmak. page 25 The Iran–Iraq War and Kurdish rebellion of 1983 caused the first large-scale influx of refugees from the region.
Amnesty International and UNHCR claimed that Turkey was not respecting Iranian refugees' human rights and pressured it to do so.
Influx from the Gulf War About 450,000 Kurds lived on Iraq-Turkey border when UN SC Resolution 688 was passed, paving the way for the Operation Northern Watch, the successor to Operation Provide Comfort. It was a Combined Task Force charged with enforcing its own no-fly zone above the 36th parallel in Iraq, following refugee flow to Turkey.
During the Gulf War, at least 1 million people fled (almost 30% of the population) to Iran, Turkey, and Pakistan.Human Rights Watch. GENOCIDE IN IRAQ: The Anfal Campaign Against the Kurds, A Middle East Watch Report. New York City: Human Rights Watch, 1993.
Influx from the War in Afghanistan
Refugee numbers greatly increased in the following years of War in Afghanistan, especially in regards to Afghans and Iraqis. As of January 2010, 25,580 refugees and asylum seekers remain in the country. Of these, 5090 Iranians, 8940 Iraqis, 3850 Afghans, and 2700 "other" (including Somalis, Uzbeks, Palestinians, and others). As of January 2011, 8710 Iranians, 9560 Afghans, 7860 other. As of January 2012 7890 (Iranians, Afghans, and other).
Influx from the Syrian Civil War
Refugees of the Syrian Civil War in Turkey are Syrian refugees fleeing from the Syrian Civil War. Turkey is hosting over 3.6 million (2019 number) registered refugees and delivering aid reaching $30 billion (total between 2011 and 2018) on refugee assistance.
Influx from the Russo-Ukrainian War On 24 February 2022, Russia invaded Ukraine. By 3 March, Turkey announced that 20,000 Ukrainian refugees had entered Turkey since the start of the invasion. Interior Minister Süleyman Soylu said that Turkey was glad to welcome them. By March 8, official figures put the number of Ukrainian refugees in the country at 20,550, of whom 551 were of Crimean Tatar or Meskhetian Turk origin. The Ukrainian winner of the 2016 Eurovision Song Contest, Jamala, who is of Crimean Tatar origin, also sought refuge in Turkey. By 23 March, the number of Ukrainian refugees had risen above 58,000. The invasion has also led at least 142,488 Russians to relocate to Turkey as of 30 June 2023 reported in The Nordic Monitor
Conditions
Turkey did not establish "classic" refugee camps and did not name them as such until 2018. They were managed by the Disaster and Emergency Management Presidency (FEMA type organisation) along its borders. Turkey also established "Temporary Accommodation Centers," such as Öncüpınar Accommodation Facility. Syrians residing outside of TACs live alongside Turkish communities that create short-to-medium term opportunities to harmonize and form economic contributions. The government of Turkey gives them permission to settle in Adana, Afyonkarahisar, Ağrı, Aksaray, Amasya, Bilecik, Burdur, Çankırı, Çorum, Eskişehir, Gaziantep, Hakkâri, Hatay, Isparta, Kahramanmaraş, Karaman, Kastamonu, Kayseri, Kırıkkale, Kırşehir, Konya, Kütahya, Mersin, Nevşehir, Niğde, Sivas, Şırnak, Tokat, Van and Yozgat as well as Istanbul. Refugees from Somalia settled in Konya; Iranis in Kayseri, Konya, Isparta, and Van; refugees from Iraq in Istanbul, Çorum, Amasya, Sivas; and refugees from Afghanistan in Van and Ağrı.
Migrant Presence Monitoring Directorate General of Migration Management (DGMM) focuses on the mobility trends, migrant profiles, and urgent needs of migrants. The data generated allows the organisations and the government to plan their short and long-term migration-related program and policies.
Effect on the host country Compared to the international refugee regime (see Refugee law), Turkey has a different approach termed as a "morality oriented approach" instead of a security centered approach towards Syrians refugees.Aras, N. E. G., & Mencutek, Z. S. (2015). The international migration and foreign policy nexus: the case of Syrian refugee crisis and Turkey. Migration Letters, 12(3), 193. Turkey incurs high expenses related to refugee care (housing, employment, education, and health), including medical expenses, with minimal support from other countries.Kirişci, K. (2014). Syrian refugees and Turkey's challenges: Going beyond hospitality: Brookings Washington, DC.
Refugees cause an increase in food prices and property prices/rent. Low-paid refugees also increase the unemployment rate in southern Turkey.
Prices have increased in critical areas such as food and transportation which has affected both the refugees and various communities with Turkish citizen communities all across Turkey. Many families across Turkey had to reduce their food consumption or had to opt to worse living conditions than they previous had. “Türkiye.” European Civil Protection and Humanitarian Aid Operations, 2 Feb. 2024, civil-protection-humanitarian-aid.ec.europa.eu/where/europe/turkiye_en. Accessed 15 Nov. 2024
Security impact As the migrant crisis developed at the most complex geostrategic position in the world, the situation contained ongoing active, proxy, or cooling wars as Turkey shared borders with Iraq (2003 US-led invasion, Iraq War (2003–2011), and Iraqi insurgency (2003–2011)), Iran (Iran–Israel proxy conflict), Syria (Syrian civil war), Georgia (Russo-Georgian War), Azerbaijan (Nagorno-Karabakh conflict), Greece and Bulgaria. In line with the escalating fragility in the region, Turkey directly joined the fight against Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (Turkey–ISIL conflict) in August 2016. The dynamics of the Syrian civil war spilled over into Turkish territory (ISIL rocket attacks on Turkey (2016)). ISIS carried out a series (2013 Reyhanlı bombings, 2015 Suruç bombing, March 2016 Istanbul bombing) of attacks against Turkish civilians by using suicide bombers. The deadliest terrorism in Turkish history, as of 2019, The ISIS attack (2015 Ankara bombings) against a peace rally.
Syria–Turkey and Iran–Turkey barrier
The border between the Syrian Arab Republic and the Republic of Turkey is about long.Syria – Turkey Boundary , International Boundary Study No. 163, The Geographer, Office of the Geographer, Bureau of Intelligence and Research, US Department of State (7 March 1978). The Syria–Turkey barrier is a border wall and fence under construction along the Syria–Turkey border aimed at preventing illegal crossings and smuggling.The Daily Telegraph: "Turkey to build 500-mile wall on Syria border after Isil Suruc bombing" by Nabih Bulos 23 Jul 2015
The Iran–Turkey barrier, finished spring 2019, at the Turkey-Iran border aimed to prevent illegal crossings and smuggling across the border. It will cover of the very high mountainous border with natural barriers.
Migrant smuggling In the Black Sea region, countries are both sources and destinations for refugees. For the destination of Turkey; originating Moldova, Ukraine, Russian Federation, Kyrgyzstan, and Uzbekistan are targets for human trafficking (migration using ships, ship operators are smugglers). The top five countries of destination in the region between 2000 and 2007 were Russia (1,860), Turkey (1,157), Moldova (696), Albania (348), and Serbia (233).
A crackdown by Turkish police has resulted in the termination of a network that mainly helped Afghan, Iraqi and Syrian nationals cross into European countries.
Refugees and spillover See: Spillover of the Syrian Civil War#Turkey, Refugees as weapons#Syrian Civil War