The Pakawan languages are a proposed small language family formerly spoken in what is today northern Mexico and southern Texas.
Classification Five clear Pakawan languages are attested: Coahuilteco, Cotoname, Comecrudo, Garza and Mamulique. The first three were first proposed to be related by John Wesley Powell in 1891, in a grouping then called Coahuiltecan. Goddard (1979) groups the latter three in a Comecrudan family while considering the others language isolates. This is followed by more modern scholars. The current composition and the present name "Pakawan" are due to Manaster Ramer (1996).
The term Coahuiltecan languages today refers to a slightly expanded and less securely established grouping. Most Pakawan languages have at times been included also in the much larger and highly hypothetical Hokan "stock".
Common vocabulary The following word comparisons are given by Manaster Ramer (1996): Core PakawanPeripheral Pakawan tentative reconstruction CoahuiltecoSwanton, John. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of southern Texas and northern Mexico. Comecrudo Cotoname Karankawa TónkawaHoijer, Harry. 1949. An analytical dictionary of the Tonkawa language. University of California publications in linguistics, 5(1). Berkeley: University of California Press. axtē'two' ale-kueten'two' haíkia'two' #al-, #axte'two' ' || || || || || #ali'ear' |- | uxualʼ'heaven' || apel'sky, heaven, clouds' || || || || #apel''sky' |- | apam'water' || || áx̣'water'|| klai, komkom'water' || || #axə'juice, water' |- | tciene'salt' || || dá-än || dem, ketac || || #dem'salt' |- | xāi'to be extinguished,to come to an end' || kai'to eat' || || aknámas'to eat' || || #kai'to eat up, consume' |- | axām'not' || kam'no' || || kóṃ'not' || || #kam'no(t)' |- | hām'to eat' || kam'to eat' || hahame, xaxame'to eat; food' || || || #kam'to eat, drink' |- | ' || || || || || #kamkam'body of water' |- | xasal'heart' || kayasel'heart' || || láhama'heart' || || #kayasel'heart' |- | || pe=kĕwek'low (of water)' || xuăxe'low (of water)' || || || #k(a)waka'low (of water)' |- | || kemen'vein' || kemma'bow' || || || #keme(n)'sinew, vein' |- | || pa=kna(x)'high, big' || kenex'good' || || || #kenex'good, big' |- | '''' || || ō' 'sun'|| klos, dóowal'sun' || || #ketekawi'sun, star' |- | talōm'fire' || klewem, klewen, len|| mánĕx'fire' || kwátci, kwoilesem'fire' || || #klewem'fire' |- | ' || || kĕnám || kanín || || #knem'breast' |- | kuas || kial || sä'x || || || #kual'blood' |- | kuan'to go' || kio; kie'to go'; 'to come' || awóyo!'go over there!' || || || #kuV-'to go, come' |- | k’āu'husband' || gnax, na'man' || xuaináxe'man' || || || #kwainaxə'man' |- | ' || kuak'reed, cane; arrow' || ka-u, kau'reed; arrow' || || || #kwak'reed' |- | || pe=kla'to suck' || huäxle'to suck' || || || #kwa(x/k?)la'to suck' |- | kʼāu'to marry' || kuau, kwai'married' || || || || #k'aw'to marry' |- | ' || wax'belly' || kox'belly' || || || #k'wax'belly' |- | tšum'night, evening' || lesum, lesom'evening' || || || || #lesum'evening' |- | '''' || || || || || #lel'buttock, leg' |- | ' katówan #lot'arm' '' #makə'to give' masõ'to give up, abandon,desert, leave' mel, pa=mesai'to fall' #maɬ-'to fall' māux'hand' mapi'hand' miapa'wing' #mapi'hand' pa=msol, pa=msul'red' msae'red' #msa'ol'red' el-pau'to kneel down,sink or sit down' pawe'to sit' #pawə'to sit' pilʼ'one' pe-kueten'one' #pil''one' ānua'moon' kan'moon' #q'an'moon' saayēx'to be wanting' #sayex'to want' sel'straw' suau'grass, tobacco;to smoke' #sel'grass' pa=kahuai, -kawai'to write, paint; paper' thawe'painted (on body, face)' #tkawai'paint' tʼāhaka, tʼāxakan'what' tete'how, what, why' *tit'what' #t'ete-'what' tʼil'day' al'sun' o'sun' #t'al'sun' xop'far, distant' huanpa, xuanpa'far' #xwanpa'far' '' yá-ĕx #ya'ex'nose' yēwal'to bewitch' yamel, yamis'devil' #yameɬ'evil spirit' na-'my, me' na'I' na'I' mai-'2PS subject prefix' emnã'you (sg.)' *men'you (sg.)' pamawau la-ak'goose' krak'goose' kol'crane' karakor'crane' ketuau'dog' kowá-u'dog' kiextuén'rabbit' kiáx̣nem'rabbit' pa=kwessom'orphan' kuwosam'small, little;boy, girl' malāux'male sexual organs' melkuai'female sexual organs' xūm'to die' kamau'to kill' wátxuka'to kill' tzin'I' yen'I' tzōtz'chest' yeso knem'to nurse' *tšei'to hear' ye'to hear' tilʼ'posterior, anus' alel; (al)el'leg'; 'buttocks,backsides, bottom' tām'woman's breast' dom'breast' mās'to look, observe' max, ma, mahe'to see' kuāx(ai)'to suffer' kayau'ache, sore'
The following sound changes and correspondences should be noted: Vocalization of word-final *l in Cotoname: 'sun', 'straw', red' Lenition of *p to /xw/ in Coahuilteco between vowels: #apel', #mapi Syncope of Apocope of final e (perhaps ) in Comecrudo: 'man', 'low [water]', 'to kneel'. /k/, /kw/ in other languages correspond to /x/, /xw/ in Cotoname, when before /a/ ('man', 'low [water]', 'to eat', 'to suck', 'to write'), as well as in Coahuilteco, when before any low vowel (__examples). /kiV/ in Comecrudo corresponds to /kuV/ in Coahuilteco: 'blood', 'to go' s ~ l (perhaps indicating a lateral fricative ) in Comecrudo corresponds to s in Coahuilteco: Comecrudo 'blood', 'devil', 'to fall'. Initial y in Comecrudo corresponds to /ts/ in Coahuilteco: I, chest, to hear
Lexical comparison The Comecrudo, Cotoname, Karankawa, Coahuilteco, Solano, and Maratino data below are all from Swanton (1940).Swanton, John R. 1940. Linguistic material from the tribes of Southern Texas and Northeastern Mexico. (Bureau of American Ethnology Bulletin 127). Washington: Government Printing Office. The Quinigua data is from Gursky (1964), which in turn is from del Hoyo (1960).del Hoyo, Eugenio. 1960. Vocablos de la Lengua Quinigua de los Indios Borrados del Noreste de México. Anuario del Centro de Estudios Humanisticos, Universidad de Nuevo León 1. 489-515. Naolan is from Weitlaner (1948),Weitlaner, Roberto J.. 1948. Un Idioma Desconocido del Norte de México. In Actes du XXVIII Congrès International de Américanistes, 205-227. Paris. and Tonkawa is from Hoijer (1949).
language head hair eye ear nose tooth tongue mouth hand foot breast meat blood bone person name Comecrudo eláx eláx, emól u-i alí yáx̣ í expén xál mapí emí, lemí kném ewé, kai kiál ehûei, klemí, xí estók lekaú Cotoname makuát makuát arókwan yá-ĕx ayésim kĕnám kemás sä'x xuaináxe Karankawa en-okea ekia aikui em-ikus em-ai aluak é, dolonakin a-lean emi-akwoi étsma eham, kékeya kanín ahaks, tecoyu, úci, yámawe Tonkawa taˑkey xʔaˑk nemtan-xaˑ henicxayʔan yamʔacxan ne̠ta̠le- kala nota- naˑtan ʔawas ʔoˑn ne̠kame- tickan hes-tewe-(toˑ-) 'to name (him)' Coahuilteco māux tām ahāuh kuās, hātz pīlam aux Solano nikaog Maratino migtikui Quinigua kai Naolan mi yuːhu; ma yoho (my) ma naːme; manáme (of deer)
language dog fish louse tree leaf flower water fire stone earth salt road eat die I you Comecrudo ketuaú, klám atuís, selaú ak 'blackish louse' xaí sel awaí, exnó, xaí, pawaí áx̣ klewém, len woyekuél kamlá sepén ál to, kai kamaú, plau, pokuét na, ye-inán, yén nánã Cotoname kowá-u áx̣ mánĕx pén dá-än haháme wátĕxo Karankawa kec áṃ, kiles akwiní klai, komkom húmhe, kwátci, kwoilesem dem, ketac aknámas náyi áwa Tonkawa ʔekˑan neswalʔan xaˑsoy-tlc nahen- ʔaˑx mʔelʔan yatexan haˑc mamʔe- naˑx ya̠xa- hewawa- saˑ- naˑ-ya Coahuilteco talōm tāp hām xūm, tzam na, tzin Solano apam tciene namō 'eat it' na- (?) Maratino migtikui paahtcu 'kill' Quinigua karama ama, ami; ka ana ka, kwa, wa pixa ama ama; ka(ene) Naolan mi; míː mi koːl; ma koːl (my) mi, ma (poss.)
References
Further reading Manaster Ramer, Alexis. 1996. Sapir's Classifications: Coahuiltecan. Anthropological Linguistics 38/1, 1–38. Sapir, Edward. 1920. The Hokan and Coahuiltecan languages. International Journal of American Linguistics, 1 (4), 280–290. Swanton, John R. (1915). Linguistic position of the tribes of southern Texas and northeastern Mexico. American Anthropologist, 17, 17–40.