Researchers in psychology, sociology, anthropology, and medicine have studied the relationship between digital media use and mental health since the mid-1990s, following the rise of the internet and mobile communication technologies. There has been a lot of research that has examined patterns of excessive or problematic use, sometimes described as "digital dependencies," which can vary across cultures and societies. At the same time, some studies have highlighted potential benefits of moderate digital media use, including supporting mental health or facilitating access to online support communities. Overall, the effect of digital media on mental health are complex and vary depending on individual, cultural, and platform-specific factors.
The distinction between beneficial and excessive digital media use has not yet been clearly established. Few widely accepted diagnostic criteria exist for problematic or pathological use, although some experts have suggested that overuse may be related to underlying psychiatric disorders. Recommendations for safer media use for children and families have been proposed, but prevention and treatment strategies are not standardized. Research also highlights ongoing debate regarding the classification of problematic digital media behaviours and the appropriateness of terms such as "addiction."
Digital media use, including time spent on social media platforms such as Instagram, TikTok, Snapchat, as well as Facebook, has been associated with both positive and negative effects on the cognitive, social and emotional development of children and adolescents. Evidence suggests that the relationship between digital media use and mental health outcomes is complex and may vary depending on the individual, the type of platform used, and patterns of engagement.
A 2017 study by He, Turel, and Bechara reported that excessive social media use was associated with reduced gray matter volume in brain regions involved in attention and impulse control, suggesting potential structural changes related to long-term overstimulation.
History and terminology
The relationship between digital technology and mental health has been studied from multiple perspectives. Research has identified benefits of digital media use for childhood and adolescent development. However, researchers, clinicians, and the public have also expressed concern over compulsive behaviours linked to digital media use, as increasing evidence shows correlations between excessive technology use and mental health issues.
Terminologies used to refer to compulsive digital-media-use behaviours are not standardized or universally recognised. They include "digital addiction", "digital dependence", "problematic use", or "overuse", often delineated by the digital media platform used or under study (such as problematic smartphone use or problematic internet use).Multiple sources: Unrestrained use of technological devices may affect developmental, social, mental and physical well-being and may result in symptoms akin to other psychological dependence syndromes, or behavioral addictions. The focus on problematic technology use in research, particularly in relation to the behavioural addiction paradigm, is becoming more accepted, despite poor standardization and conflicting research.
Internet addiction has been proposed as a diagnosis since 1998 and social media and its relation to addiction has been examined since 2009. A 2018 Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) report stated there were benefits of structured and limited internet use in children and adolescents for developmental and educational purposes, but that excessive use can have a negative impact on mental well-being. The report also noted a 40% overall increase in internet use among school-age children between 2010 and 2015, with significant variations in usage rates and platform preferences across different OECD countries. The American Psychological Association recommends that adolescents receive training or coaching on social media use to help them develop psychologically informed skills and competencies, promoting balanced, safe, and meaningful engagement online.
The Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM) has not formally classified problematic digital media use as a diagnostic category but identified internet gaming disorder as a condition warranting further study in 2013. Meanwhile, gaming disorder—commonly known as video game addiction—is recognized in the ICD-11. The differing recommendations between the DSM and ICD partly reflect a lack of expert consensus, variations in the focus of each classification system, and challenges in applying animal models to behavioural addictions.
The utility of the term addiction in relation to the overuse of digital media has been questioned, in regard to its suitability to describe new, digitally mediated psychiatric categories, as opposed to overuse being a manifestation of other psychiatric disorders. Usage of the term has also been criticised for drawing parallels with substance use behaviours. Careless use of the term may cause more problems—both downplaying the risks of harm in seriously affected people, as well as overstating risks of excessive, non-pathological use of digital media. The evolution of terminology relating excessive digital media use to problematic use rather than addiction was encouraged by Panova and Carbonell, psychologists at Ramon Llull University, in a 2018 review.
Due to the lack of recognition and consensus on the concepts used, diagnoses and treatments are difficult to standardize or develop. Heightened levels of public anxiety around new media (including social media, smartphones and video games) adds confusion to the interpretation of population-based assessments, as well as posing management dilemmas. Radesky and Christakis, the 2019 editors of JAMA Paediatrics, published a review that investigated "concerns about health and developmental/behavioural risks of excessive media use for child cognitive, language, literacy, and social-emotional development." Due to the ready availability of multiple technologies to children worldwide, the problem is bi-directional, as taking away digital devices may have a detrimental effect, in areas such as learning, family relationship dynamics, and overall development.
Problematic use
Associations have been observed between excessive digital media use and mental health symptoms, including anxiety, depression, and attention difficulties, but causality has not been established. Problematic use has also been associated with fear of missing out (FoMO), where users experience anxiety or stress about potentially missing online content, which may contribute to feelings of social exclusion. Younger users may be particularly vulnerable to social comparison, which can exacerbate anxiety or depressive symptoms. Although some neuroscientific research has explored structural brain differences associated with excessive digital media use, there is currently no established biological mechanism that explains why some individuals develop problematic use patterns.
Screen time and mental health
Certain types of problematic internet use have been linked to psychiatric and behavioural issues such as depression, anxiety, hostility, aggression, and attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). However, studies have not established clear causal relationships—for instance, it remains unclear whether individuals with depression overuse the internet because of their condition, or if excessive internet use contributes to developing depression. Research also suggests that social media's effects can be both positive and negative, depending on individual circumstances. While digital media overuse has been associated with depressive symptoms, it may also be used in some cases to improve mood. A large prospective study found a positive correlation between ADHD symptoms and digital media use.
Although the ADHD symptom of hyperfocus may lead some individuals to spend excessive time on video games, social media, or online chatting, the link between hyperfocus and problematic social media use is relatively weak. A 2018 review found associations between the self-reported mental health symptoms by users of the Chinese social media platform WeChat and excessive platform use. However, the motivations and usage patterns of WeChat users affected overall psychological health, rather than the amount of time spent using the platform. During the COVID-19 pandemic specifically, a meta-analysis reported that although gaming time increased modestly, greater time spent gaming was not linked to differences in well-being across studies.
The evidence, although of mainly low to moderate quality, shows a correlation between heavy screen time and a variety of physical and mental health problems. Social media is found to be one of the main factors of procrastination, especially for students. Although media provides entertainment it can also be a distraction leading to these declines in academic success. Research from stop Procrastinating finds social media and other forms of media, to be the leading cause of procrastination trends. However, moderate use of digital media has been linked to positive outcomes, including improved social integration, mental health, and overall well-being for young people. In fact, certain digital platforms, when used in moderation, have even been associated with enhanced mental health.Weigle, Paul E., and Pamela Hurst-Della Pietra. "Children and Screens: Youth Digital Media Use and Mental Health Outcomes." Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent Psychiatry 60, no. 10 (October 2, 2021): S297–S297. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jaac.2021.07.700.
In a 2022 review, it was discovered that when it comes to adolescents' well-being that perhaps there is too much focus on locating a negative correlation between digital technologies and adolescents' well-being, If a negative correlation between the two are located the impact would potentially be minimal to the point where it would have little to no impact on adolescent well-being or quality of life.
Social media and mental health
Excessive social media use has been associated with negative mental health outcomes among adolescents and young adults. Some studies have found associations between social media use and mental health difficulties, though results are often weak or inconsistent across studies. Social media use may have both positive and negative effects, depending on factors such as the type of use, frequency, and individual context. Among older adults, evidence suggests that social media use may be associated with positive outcomes, such as enhanced social connection and well-being, although causality has not been established.
Social media can be a valuable tool that, when used appropriately, brings positive benefits both online and offline. For adolescents, social media offers opportunities to build and maintain relationships, access information, connect with others in real time, and express themselves through creating and engaging with content. However, improper use of social media can pose risks. Adolescents may be exposed to cyberbullying, sexual predators, inappropriate adult content, substance use, and unrealistic portrayals of people and lifestyles.
Digital technologies tend to focus on hedonic well-being, in which users are exposed to content that evokes joy and laughter towards positive content, or anger and sadness towards negative content. In turn these negative impacts on adolescence or any users of social media will only experience temporary impacts on mental well-being, which will not have a permanent effect on the user's quality of life and life satisfaction.