Britain's role in the Spanish American wars of independence combines the military, political and diplomatic routes adopted by them, as well as its merchants and private citizens during the conflict. Britain wanted to see an end to Spanish colonialism in the Americas but at the same time wanted to keep her as an ally in post-Napoleonic Europe. British support for the Spanish American revolutionaries was essentially a covert role with both private and state involvement.Baeza Ruz, Andrés (2017). "Imperio, Estado y Nación en las relaciones entre chilenos y británicos durante el proceso de independencia hispanoamericano, 1806-1831", pages 71 and 72.
As a combined form of unofficial private enterprise, the British were able to use their merchants in the hope of cutting the Spanish monopoly. Arms, supplies, loans, ships, and hired soldiers and sailors were then sent to support the revolutionaries.Kaufamn & Macpherson p 35 Spanish aid was eventually cut off from their colonies with the clever use of diplomacy, and with the Royal Navy in command of the oceans. All these factors combined were decisive in the struggle for independence of South American republics.
Background The Kingdom of Great Britain had long harboured ambitions in South America, particularly in regards to trade. The South Sea Company was granted trading concessions in South America during the reign of Queen Anne, in January 1711 under the Treaty of Utrecht. Following this attempts had been made by the British to establish a foothold in South America; most however failed, notably in 1741 at the Battle of Cartagena de Indias during the War of Jenkins' Ear.
By 1783 Britain had lost her Thirteen Colonies of North America, which had become independent with the support of both France and Spain. Britain then looked to restore her loss of prestige, and expand its influence in the Americas.
In 1789 the Nootka Crisis began – a dispute in Nootka Sound on Vancouver Island, and war between Britain against both Spain and France looked to be a foregone conclusion. The revolutionary Franciso de Miranda made use of the crisis to present to some British cabinet ministers his ideas about the independence of Spanish territories in America. A plan was therefore put in motion, but both Spain and France however were forced to back down against Britain following successful diplomacy and mobilisation of the Royal Navy. Miranda's proposal was therefore cancelled, but the idea bore fruit for a future conflict; the politician Nicholas Vansittart implemented the 'Vansittart Plan in 1795, with the aim of an expedition striking Buenos Aires and from then on to Callao via the Andes. This however was put on hold following Britain's coalition with Spain against Revolutionary France.
The following year however Great Britain was at war with both Spain and the French First Republic in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. The Spanish government recognised that the United Kingdom was the main threat to their colonies in Spanish America.
Maitland plan In 1800, the 'Vansittart Plan' was improved by Major General Thomas Maitland and so was renamed the Maitland Plan. The plan was more bolder - made up of six objectives titled Plan to capture Buenos Aires and Chile, and then emancipate Peru and Quito from the Spanish Empire. The plan was put into place – in 1806 and 1807, when the United Kingdom invaded the River Plate. The first invasion had several contingents, totalling about 1,700 soldiers. This was followed up with a second of up to 14,000 men, twenty warships and ninety transports. They initially occupied Buenos Aires and later Montevideo but were defeated by the Spanish colonial militias. As these victories were gained with minimal help from Spain, they provided a catalyst for the growth of discontent with Spanish rule in the River Plate.Miller p. 27 The plan was put on hold again as events on the European continent took shape.
Change of alliances On May 2, 1808, however Napoleon Bonaparte's army entered Spain which led to the Peninsular War. This reconfigured the alliances between the European powers. King Ferdinand VII stayed in Bayonne and Joseph Bonaparte took the Spanish throne, which broke the state pact between France and Spain, previously installed, by the family pacts of the Bourbon kings. The United Kingdom, on the other hand, was preparing to fight French forces in the Iberian Peninsula, and thus Britain and Spain became allies. The Spanish fleet however which had been left crippled after the Battle of Trafalgar had a few sea worthy going ships. These remaining ships together with a controversial purchase of Russian ships, would be the only naval link with the overseas colonies in that period. George Canning during his time as Foreign Office secretary became deeply involved in the affairs of Spain, Portugal and South America.
A weakened Spain distracted and virtually cut off from her colonies, meant that insurrections in South America began to surface soon after the Peninsula War began. In addition, Spanish treasure fleets carrying tax revenues from the Americas – were interrupted, bankrupting Spain. The British meanwhile improved their own colonial interests by expanding; with the capture of French and Dutch colonies.
Military support
The Maitland Plan meanwhile was still a British objective - José de San Martín, the prime leader of the southern part of South America's struggle for independence, was introduced to the plan (during his stay in London in 1811) by revolutionary leader Francisco de Miranda and James Duff. San Martín took the Maitland Plan as a blueprint for the movements necessary to defeat the Spanish army in South America; in particular with the last five objectives of the plan which included the Crossing of the Andes. The following year, the separation of the River Plate was assured once the fall of Montevideo was achieved.
Violation of neutrality The United Kingdom had declared neutrality which was the policy of Lord Castlereagh's government. This was to keep Spain separate from the French post-Napoleonic period, which was feared would break the European balance of power whilst the British wanted to preserve their colonial interests around the world. Consequently, the United Kingdom rejected the requests of the revolutionary commissioners to recognize their independence but would offer military and financial support allowed under British law. The British declined any agreement with the Spanish government that would ensure the continual rule of their South American territories, partly in order to monopolise the important emerging markets of South America.
In 1817 a recruitment programme began in Great Britain of military personnel for service of the Revolutionary forces in South America. During the next two years, the government of London had to overcome the demands of the Spanish government for the extensive enlistment of British officers, sailors and soldiers. London counted on the British public for sympathy and support for the recruitment to the patriot cause, which would help alleviate the 500,000 British, Irish, and German ex-soldiers after the fall of Napoleon. A large number of these veterans of the Napoleonic wars were thus unemployed.Flores pp 31-32
However, the international obligations of a declared policy of neutrality, were inconsistent with the large number of British combatants taken from the United Kingdom and its colonies to fight against Spain's own colonies in South America. Before 1817 a few British combatants had participated in early phases of the struggle in different parts of South America, in mostly isolated - but still relevant - actions such as the Battle of Martín García. Nevertheless, the systematic recruitment of forces to fight for Simón Bolívar began in April 1817. The circumstances were very favourable - with the help of Venezuelan agents as Luis López Méndez and adventurers such as Gregor MacGregor, British officers and sergeants were recruited forming their own regiments.Slatta & De Grummon p. 178
This violation of neutrality was protested by the Spanish commissioners led by Joaquin Campuzano in July of that year. The Foreign Office however denied any illegal act whilst Castlereagh tried to minimize the problem, assuring the Spanish that these were specific cases, without employment. At the beginning of September, many active officers requested permission to travel to South America, and the commander in chief of the army, the Duke of York, raised his doubts about the convenience of allowing those officers to proceed with the embarkation. Castlereagh, imposed the distinction between "prohibit" and "not grant permission", in the contrary opinion of George Canning. Castlereagh referred to his lawmakers, who said that although the foreign service had been banned, the old laws did not seem applicable to unrecognised states such as in South America. The stubborn attitude of Ferdinand VII actually helped the British play their hand. He refused to consider making any concessions to the Revolutionaries which caused the British government to regard with more friendly eyes the prospect of South American Independence.Keen & Haynes p. 173
During September, the recruitment was already well-known and public, and newspapers gave details of troops and war material in ships destined towards South America. The protests of the Spanish ambassador, Duke of San Carlos became more insistent.Hughes pp 226-27 Castlereagh refused to deal with a royal proclamation against enlistment in Britain, which would leave the insurgents helpless. He claimed that this prohibition was irreconcilable with British public opinion, without introducing, at the same time, mediation and free trade in Britain with the Spanish colonies.
Arms trade After 1815 this changed dramatically; with the war in Europe over, the revolutionaries were helped by arms and ammunition supplied to them from the United Kingdom and its colonies. Thus began the creation and equipping of new regular patriotic armies. With Britain's complete control of the seas and her colonies in the Caribbean, notably Jamaica and Trinidad, this made arms trafficking far easier to accomplish. The large surplus of arms left over from the Napoleonic war by Britain meant that these were cheap and readily available. British merchants both in the Caribbean and in Europe gave loans and supplies that enabled the South American revolutionaries to secure the means to carry out further campaigns. As a result, British merchants cut the monopolies held by the Spanish elite. With the increase in merchants came an influx of new ideas and new people from Europe, including academics and artisans and tradesmen. With the increase in Europeans across the whole of South America, Britain's goal to increase trade had influenced a continent's fight for independence.
+ Arms trafficking 1815–25 Type of weaponImage Quantity Muskets 704,104 Pistols 100,637 Gunflints 35,617,864 Musket balls 4,508 tons Cannonballs 10,254 tons Sabres 209,864
Terrestrial War in South America
From 1817, recruitment for service in South America took place in the United Kingdom. Many were veterans of the Napoleonic and colonial British wars and left their country to fight for Bolivar. The British Legions were composed of the 1st British Legion, the 2nd British Legion and the Irish Legion. They formed the battalions of infantry Albion, Carabobo and Rifles, regiments of cavalry like the Hussars, although their members also fought in other South American units.
The units of the Legion used their own banners, such as the Union Flag for the English, or in the case of the Irish Legion a green flag with the clàrsach, symbol of Ireland.Brown p.116