A democracy is a political system, or a system of decision-making within an institution, organization, or state, in which members have a share of power. Modern democracies are characterized by two capabilities of their citizens that differentiate them fundamentally from earlier forms of government: to intervene in society and have their sovereign (e.g., their representatives) held accountable to the international laws of other governments of their kind. Democratic government is commonly juxtaposed with oligarchic and monarchic systems, which are ruled by a minority and a sole monarch respectively.
Democracy is generally associated with the efforts of the ancient Greeks, whom 18th-century intellectuals such as Montesquieu considered the founders of Western civilization. These individuals attempted to leverage these early democratic experiments into a new template for post-monarchical political organization.Morris I. The Measure of Civilization: How Social Development Decides The Fate of Nations [e-book]. Princeton: Princeton University Press; 2013. Available from: eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost), Ipswich, MA. Accessed 18 May 2017. The extent to which these 18th-century democratic revivalists succeeded in turning the democratic ideals of the ancient Greeks into the dominant political institution of the next 300 years is hardly debatable, even if the moral justifications they often employed might be. Nevertheless, the critical historical juncture catalyzed by the resurrection of democratic ideals and institutions fundamentally transformed the ensuing centuries and has dominated the international landscape since the dismantling of the final vestige of the British Empire following the end of the Second World War, as well as the end of the Cold War and the subsequent dissolution of the Soviet Union.
Modern representative democracies attempt to bridge the gap between Rousseau's depiction of the state of nature and Hobbes's depiction of society as inevitably authoritarian through 'social contracts' that enshrine the rights of the citizens, curtail the power of the state, and grant agency through the right to vote.
Antiquity
Prehistoric origins Anthropologists have identified forms of proto-democracy that date back to small bands of hunter-gatherers that predate the establishment of agrarian, sedentary societies and still exist virtually unchanged in isolated indigenous groups today. In these groups of generally 50–100 individuals, often tied closely by familial bonds, decisions are reached by consensus or majority and many times without the designation of any specific chief.
These types of democracy are commonly identified as tribalism, or primitive democracy. In this sense, a primitive democracy usually takes shape in small communities or villages when there are face-to-face discussions in a village, council or with a leader who has the backing of village elders or other cooperative forms of government."Political System". Updated 17 November 2023. Encyclopædia Britannica This becomes more complex on a larger scale, such as when the village and city are examined more broadly as political communities. All other forms of rule – including monarchy, tyranny, aristocracy, and oligarchy – have flourished in more urban centers, often those with concentrated populations."Democracy". Updated 17 March 2024. Encyclopædia Britannica David Graeber and David Wengrow, in The Dawn of Everything, argue in contrast that cities and early settlements were more varied and unpredictable in terms of how their political systems alternated and evolved from more to less democratic.
The concepts (and name) of democracy and constitution as a form of government originated in ancient Athens in the sixth-century BC (circa 508 BC). In ancient Greece, where there were many city-states with different forms of government, democracy ("rule by the ", i.e. citizen body) was contrasted with governance by elites (aristocracy, literally "rule by the best"), by one person (monarchy), by tyrants (tyranny), etc.
Potential proto-democratic societies Although fifth-century BC Athens is widely considered to have been the first state to develop a sophisticated system of rule that we today call democracy,Dunn, 1994, p. 2Robinson, 1997, pp. 24–5Thorley, 1996, p. 2Dunn, 2006, p. 13 in recent decades scholars have explored the possibility that advances toward democratic government occurred independently in the Near East, the Indian subcontinent, and elsewhere before this.Robinson, 1997, pp. 16–17
Mesopotamia
Studying pre-Babylonian Mesopotamia, Thorkild Jacobsen used Sumerian epic, myth, and historical records to identify what he has called primitive democracy. By this, Jacobsen means a government in which ultimate power rests with the mass of free (non-slave) male citizens, although "the various functions of government are as yet little specialised [and] the power structure is loose". In early Sumer, kings like Gilgamesh did not hold the autocratic power that later Mesopotamian rulers wielded. Rather, major city-states functioned with councils of elders and "young men" (likely free men bearing arms) that possessed the final political authority, and had to be consulted on all major issues such as war.Jacobsen, 1943, pp. 159–172Isakhan, B. (2007). "Engaging 'Primitive Democracy': Mideast Roots of Collective Governance". Middle East Policy 14(3), 97–117.
The work has gained little outright acceptance. Scholars criticize the use of the word "democracy" in this context since the same evidence also can be interpreted to demonstrate a power struggle between primitive monarchy and noble classes, a struggle in which the common people function more like pawns rather than any kind of sovereign authority.Bailkey, 1967, pp. 1211–1236 Jacobsen conceded that the vagueness of the evidence prohibits the separation between the Mesopotamian democracy from a primitive oligarchy.Robinson, 1997, p. 20
David Graeber and David Wengrow in their 2021 book The Dawn of Everything, A New History of Humanity posit that large popular assemblies might have been used in Uruk, in southern Mesopotamia, back in 3300 BC, and that Teotihuacan, in present-day Mexico, took a sudden turn toward egalitarianism around AD 300.David Graeber and David Wengrow in their 2021 book The Dawn of Everything, A New History of Humanity, pp. 304–306, 332–3
Phoenicia
The practice of "governing by assembly" was at least part of how ancient Phoenicians made important decisions. One source is the story of Wen-Amon, an Egyptian trader who travelled north to the Phoenician city of Byblos around 1100 BC to trade for Phoenician lumber. After loading his lumber, a group of pirates surrounded Wen-Amon and his cargo ship. The Phoenician prince of Byblos was called in to fix the problem, whereupon he summoned his mw-'dwt, an old Semitic word meaning assembly, to reach a decision. This shows that Byblos was ruled in part by a popular assembly (drawn from what subpopulation and equipped with exactly what power is not known exactly).
Ancient Iran
Several forms of proto-democratic governance also existed in Ancient Iran, particularly among the Medes, Achaemenids, and Parthians.
The Gathas, attributed to the Iranian prophet Zoroaster in 6th century BC, emphasize moral choice, civic responsibility, and the selection of righteous leaders. In the sacred text Yasna 30, Zoroaster calls on people to "listen to the best arguments, ponder with good judgment, and choose freely their path".AVESTA: Yasna 30. Avesta.org The concept of Vohu Khshathra Vairya (lit. "Good Dominion Worthy of Choice") reflects the ideal of a just, elected rulership.Zoroastrian Religion and Democracy. Zoroastrian.org According to scholars, Zoroastrianism promoted a form of spiritual and political democracy, emphasizing individual judgment and non-discrimination between men and women in civic decision-making.Tarikhfa: Democracy and Zoroaster
According to Diodorus Siculus, following the fall of the Assyrian Empire, the Medes established independent city-states that were "administered in a democratic fashion".Diodorus Siculus, Library, Book 9, 20. Perseus Project Similarly, Herodotus describes the Medes' revolt against the Assyrians as a popular uprising that led to self-governance before eventually transitioning to monarchy under Deioces in 7th century BC.Herodotus, Histories, 1.96
One of the earliest recorded constitutional debates took place in 522 BCE, following the death of the usurper Gaumata. Herodotus recounts a pivotal discussion among seven Persian nobles regarding the future of governance. Otanes proposed a democratic system based on equality before the law, appointment of officials by lot, public deliberation, and collective rule. Though ultimately unsuccessful in swaying the decision, Otanes' speech is seen by some scholars as advocating a radical form of democracy, and his arguments are cited as among the earliest theoretical defenses of democratic governance.Cartledge, P. (2016). Democracy: A Life. Oxford University Press. ISBN 9780190494322Canfora, L. (2008). Democracy in Europe: A History of an Ideology. Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN 9781405154598 Herodotus later defends the historicity of this debate, stating that Otanes had indeed advised the Persians "to become democratic" (demokrateesthai).Herodotus, Histories, 6.43.3
During the Parthian Empire, political power was shared between the monarchy and a bicameral parliament known as the Magistan (Greek: Megisthanes). According to Strabo and Justin, the council was composed of noble families (including the Seven Great Houses of Iran) and religious scholars, primarily the magi.Strabo, Geographica, Book 11.9.3Justin, Epitome of the Philippic History of Pompeius Trogus, Book 41.2.2 Although the kings held ultimate power, the parliament often played a decisive role in royal succession and policy-making, suggesting an early model of constitutional monarchy.Pirnia, H. Tarikh-e Iran-e Bastan, Vol. 3, Tehran: Majles Publishing. The first session of the Megisthanes is reported to have occurred during the reign of Mithridates I in 137 BCE.تاریخ ایرانی: تاریخچه مجلس در ایران
Indian subcontinent Another claim for early democratic institutions comes from the independent republics of India, s and s, which existed as early as the 6th century BC and persisted in some areas until the 4th century. In addition, Diodorus—a Greek historian who wrote two centuries after the time of Alexander the Great's invasion of India—mentions that independent and democratic states existed in India.Diodorus 2.39