Xu Jie (9 October 1503 – 18 April 1583) was a Chinese scholar-official during the Ming dynasty. He held a high position in the court of the Jiajing Emperor in the mid-16th century, serving as minister of rites from 1549 to 1552, and later as grand secretary and head of the Grand Secretariat from 1562 to 1568.
Xu came from a modest family, relying on the income from a silk factory. His father held lower-level official positions, but prioritized his son's education in Confucianism, which ultimately proved to be a wise investment for the family. Xu Jie excelled in the civil service examinations, achieving the highest level, the palace examination, at the age of 20 in 1523. He was accepted into the Hanlin Academy, and unlike many of his colleagues, he avoided being caught up in the purges during the Great Rites Controversy between the Jiajing Emperor and the government. In 1524, he chose to stay at home to mourn his father's death, which spared him from any potential consequences. In 1530, he openly opposed the Emperor and the government's proposed reforms in the ceremonies associated with the veneration of Confucius. He was sent to the remote mountainous prefecture of Yanping in the southern Chinese province of Fujian to serve as a judge. After a few years, he was promoted to the position of education intendant in Zhejiang and then in Jiangxi. In 1539, he was transferred back to Beijing to the Hanlin Academy, and in 1541, he became the head of the Imperial University. In late 1544, he was appointed as the vice minister of rites, and from early 1545, he served as the vice minister of personnel for four years.
Xu was not only a philosophical and ethical thinker, but also actively participated in organizing the jiangxue debates on Confucian studies and moral self-improvement. In addition to his interest in philosophy and personal growth, he prioritized establishing connections and building relationships with other participants in the discussions. He strategically utilized these friendships and connections for political support. He was known for his efficient management skills and attention to bureaucratic details, as well as his ability to navigate power dynamics and take advantage of opportunities. As a young official, he was known for his energy and strong convictions, even when they went against the government and the Emperor. However, as he matured as a politician, he became more cautious and prioritized fulfilling the Emperor's wishes. Nevertheless, he was not afraid to make quick and decisive decisions when necessary. He leveraged his high political positions to accumulate significant wealth, becoming one of the largest landowners in Jiangnan, the most economically developed region of China. After leaving office, he faced attacks from his political adversaries, but thanks to the support of Grand Secretary Zhang Juzheng, his family was spared severe punishment and the confiscation of their property.
Youth and early career Xu Jie was born on 9 October 1503 during China's Ming dynasty in Xuanping, Zhejiang Province. His father held the position of vice magistrate and the family later moved to Ningdu, Jiangxi Province when his father was transferred to the same position. Xu Jie's family originated from Huating County, Songjiang Prefecture (present-day Fengxian, Shanghai). They were not particularly well-known, as his father's career began as an assistant employee and he was only able to hold relatively low positions. The family's main source of wealth was a silk factory, where female employees were responsible for weaving silk fabrics. Xu Jie's mother, wives, and daughter-in-law managed the factory in succession.
From a young age, Xu focused on studying Confucianism. His father went back to Huating to help him become a shengyuan (county student), and he passed the test at the age of 14, which was earlier than most students. Two years later, Xu Jie failed the provincial examination, but he received help from the new magistrate, Nie Bao, who regularly met with selected students, including Xu, to "discuss study" (jiangxue). Under Nie's guidance, Xu's perspective shifted from solely seeking status and wealth to contemplating the reasons for studying. He began to understand the importance of gaining literary fame, and, by 1524, he concluded that true success was not measured by external achievements but by internal transformation and actions based on the knowledge of one's own heart and mind.
In 1522, Xu achieved considerable success by passing the provincial examination. Out of several thousand applicants, he ranked seventh among the 135 successful candidates. The following year, the 20-year-old Xu participated in the metropolitan and palace examinations in Beijing with approximately 3,500 other candidates. He achieved third place out of four hundred successful candidates. This was an exceptional achievement for someone of his age, especially considering his high ranking. During the subsequent interview, he made a strong impression on the grand secretaries Yang Tinghe and Fei Hong.
After successfully passing the examinations, Xu was appointed as a junior compiler at the Hanlin Academy. In order to officially begin his career, he was required to marry. As per his parents' arrangement, he married a girl surnamed Shen (1505–1530). On his way back to Beijing, he learned of his father's death. He immediately returned home and spent the next year in mourning. His wife gave birth to their son, Xu Fan (), in 1529, but she died the following year. Xu Jie then remarried to a girl surnamed Zhang (1516–1583), with whom he had a daughter and two sons—Xu Kun (), born in 1544, and Xu Ying (), born in 1550. Lady Zhang managed their household in Beijing with modesty, fully supported by her husband who did not approve of extravagance. Therefore, she did not spend much, but she—as a devout Buddhist—was generous in charitable donations. She and Xu raised their sons to be polite, humble, and dedicated to their studies. Xu Jie's close relatives included a sister who was married to an officer from Shandong Province, and a younger brother named Xu Zhi (). In 1543, Xu Zhi passed the civil service examinations, earning the rank of jinshi and beginning a successful career in the civil service.
During the mourning period of 1523–1524, Xu Jie remained in his home county and avoided involvement in the official protests that took place in Beijing in August 1524. These protests, known as the Great Rites Controversy, resulted in severe punishments for hundreds of officials, including seventeen deaths. Xu only arrived in Beijing after the protests had ended and visited his friends who had been exiled to distant provinces as punishment. He assisted them in their travels, but did not offer any commentary on the ongoing conflict. This led to sarcastic remarks that he was simply "observing things from the back of the boat" while the conflict between most officials and the Jiajing Emperor unfolded.
After returning to the academy, Xu was tasked with teaching the Emperor's eunuchs. He put in great effort, starting his lectures before dawn and ending them in the late afternoon. Unlike previous years, he raised the level of education for the eunuchs under his care. He convinced these young men, who were used to a more relaxed teaching style, that the knowledge they acquired would benefit their future rise in positions. The alliances he formed with the eunuchs during this time proved to be advantageous in his later career. In the late 1520s, he also occasionally lectured the Emperor. In addition to his official duties, he participated in philosophical discussions in Beijing with his older friend Ouyang De and other like-minded young officials. These men were followers of Wang Yangming's philosophy, and in the following decades, some of them—including the philosophers Zou Shouyi and Luo Hongxian and the prolific writer Tang Shunzhi—grew to be figures of national importance.
The rites controversy and service in the south In 1530, Xu unexpectedly opposed a proposed revision of the ceremonies and titles associated with Confucius. This proposal was put forth by Grand Secretary Zhang Cong with the knowledge and consent of the Jiajing Emperor. The Emperor and Zhang Cong sought comments on the reform project, but were met with serious opposition. The proposed changes included stripping Confucius of his title of king (wang) and removing statues and paintings from Confucius' temples. They also suggested simplifying the ceremonies at the Temple of Confucius and removing their resemblance to imperial sacrifices. Xu vehemently rejected these changes, arguing that the founder of the Ming dynasty, the Hongwu Emperor, had confirmed the ceremonies and titles associated with Confucius. He believed that the people were accustomed to these traditions and that any changes would cause distrust in the government with unpredictable consequences. Xu was supported by Censor Li Guan and Supervising Secretary Wang Rumei. The Emperor suspected Li Guan of trying to revive the Great Rites Controversy and had him removed from his position. Xu continued to stand by his objections, even when he was heard by the grand secretaries Zhang Cong, Zhai Luan, and Gui E. The debate reached a climax when Xu responded to Zhang's accusation of disloyalty by stating that only a follower of Zhang could betray loyalty to him, which Xu was not and had never been. He also refused the Emperor's demand to withdraw his objections. The Emperor ordered him to be transferred from Beijing. At the urging of Censor-in-chief Wang Hong (), who believed the Emperor's decision was too lenient, Xu was then arrested. He was expected to die in prison, but was ultimately transferred to the inland Fujian prefecture of Yanping as a judge thanks to the intervention of high-ranking officials Wen Yuan () and Tang Long (). Xu's dissenting gesture earned him respect and recognition among the officials. He himself later judged it as naive when he based his objections on the belief that "Heaven gives men tongues and the power of speech, so why be afraid to use them?"
Xu spent three years in Yanping. During this time, he was diligent in his duties, resolving long-standing court cases, suppressing banditry, rooting out corruption in the silver mines, and promoting Confucian education—he collected and burned copies of the Legalist-Taoist treatise Deng Xizi, demolished a local shrine, and built a Confucian school in its place. He also personally taught students preparing for the civil service examinations, following in the footsteps of his own teacher, Nie Bao. When he left Yanping, his students showed their appreciation by publishing his collected works. In 1534, he was promoted to provincial educational intendant in Zhejiang Province, and in 1536, he was transferred to the same position in Jiangxi Province. In this role, he oversaw the state schools and helped organize the examinations. He was able to maintain discipline among the students without causing resistance, earning their respect. He was not afraid to discipline even the most talented students if their work was too complex or unclear. He also arranged for his friend Zou Shouyi to focus specifically on the most gifted students in Jiangxi. In 1539, he was called back to Beijing. His career advancement was supported by Minister of Personnel Xu Zan and censors, as well as Xia Yan, who was in charge of the Grand Secretariat in the late 1530s and early 1540s. Xia's support was unlikely considering that Xu had refused Xia's relatives special treatment during his time in Jiangxi.
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