Zimbabwe experienced severe floods from December 2016 through March 2017 due to heavy rains that followed a two-year drought.
Zimbabwe's rainy season began in October 2016, continuing through December. The situation was worsened by Cyclone Dineo, which made landfall in Mozambique on 15 February 2017. It was downgraded to a tropical depression as it crossed into Zimbabwe the following day. Up to 100 mm of rain fell within 24 hours, causing the Gwayi River to overflow, flooding nearby villages and destroying homesteads and public infrastructure.
Forty-five districts were affected, with Matabeleland, Midlands, Masvingo, Mashonaland West, Manicaland, and Metropolitan provinces hit hardest. The government estimated that the floods killed 251 and injured at least 128 people. Private and public infrastructure were damaged or destroyed, including 5 bridges, more than 140 dams, 388 schools, and 2,579 houses, leaving many people marooned and homeless. Nearly 2,000 people were internally displaced in the worst affected Tsholotsho district, of which over 859 (mostly children) were sheltered in a temporary camp. Water supply infrastructure was damaged, compromising water quality, sanitation, and hygiene (WASH), leaving up to 100,000 people without safe drinking water, and contributing to disease outbreaks including typhoid, cholera, and malaria.
The Zimbabwean Government declared the floods a national emergency at the beginning of March 2017, issuing appeals to the private sector, development partners, NGOs, and foreign governments for international assistance. The total funding needed for immediate emergency assistance and long-term infrastructure rebuilding was estimated at US$189 million.
Contributing factors
Meteorological factors
El Niño and La Niña cycles The 2016-2017 floods were attributed to the La Niña phenomenon resulting in heavy rainfall and tropical cyclonic activity. It followed the 2014–2016 El Niño event which resulted in reduced rainfall and drought. This transition from severe drought conditions to excessive wet conditions led to rapidly saturated grounds.
Tropical cyclone In February 2017, Cyclone Dineo originated from the Mozambique Channel in the Indian Ocean, with winds reaching a peak strength of 129.6 km/h. After making landfall, it hit the southeastern coast of Mozambique on 15 February with winds exceeding 100 km/h. The storm continued inland to reach Zimbabwe on 16 February, bringing heavy rains and strong winds with up to 100 mm of rain in 24 hours.
Geographical factors
Topography A high broad plateau called the Highveld, part of the Zambezian region, crosses the spine of Zimbabwe at approximately 1,200 meters above sea level. This plateau forms a watershed with lower regions on either side. The surrounding areas slope into the Zambezi River basin to the north, the Limpopo River basin to the south, and the Save River basin to the southeast, making the low-lying regions more prone to flooding.
Rivers and dams Because of La Niña, many rivers and their tributaries had already received above-average rainfall, and the grounds were already saturated, leading to surface run-off. Cyclone Dineo made the situation worse, resulting in 85% of the country's dams overflowing, exacerbating the flooding situation.
Forests and soil About 70% of the soil consists of granite-derived sandy soils that are susceptible to degradations such as leaching and erosion under heavy rains. Deforestation activities and soil degradation from farming and mining have made the country susceptible to floods by weakening the natural ability of trees to absorb water and reducing soil water retention capacity.Gotore, T., Muchawona, A., Murepa, R., Tembani, M., Mutete, P., Muchena, R. and Mujuru, L., 2019. Drivers of deforestation and forest degradation in Zimbabwe. STZNDC Report: Government of Zimbabwe/UNDP.
Infrastructure and residential factors Infrastructure such as dams, roads, bridges, or homesteads were prone to damage during heavy rains because they were old, outdated, or built with poor-quality construction materials, lacking the robustness to withstand such high volumes of water.
More than 70% of the population relies on agriculture as their primary source of income. Many reside in low-lying rural regions near rivers which offer rich soil for cultivation but are highly vulnerable to flooding.
Governmental factors
Early warning and preparedness The government was unprepared and poorly equipped to properly respond to such a large-scale disaster due to its lack of funding, workforce, and resources, and its inability to implement climate change adaptation strategies. Early warning systems and information dissemination were insufficient because they failed to reach the most vulnerable populations in remote rural areas, which often do not have access to newspapers, television, radio, or telephones.
Policy The Civil Protection Act (Chapter 10:06) of 1989 was the main government policy guiding disaster risk management at the time. It established the Department of Civil Protection (DCP), which was the authority responsible for coordinating disaster response and providing assistance at provincial or district levels. Its primary focus was on disaster response rather than on preparedness. In 2017, the DCP received .004% (US$286k) of the annual national budget to manage disasters.
The Disaster Risk Management Act bill was introduced in 2011, designed to ensure financial stability and structural reforms to provide the needed access to resources. However, at the time of the disaster, it was not yet approved by the legislature. Once implemented, the act reforms the nation's disaster risk management to be better in line with the Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction and provides a minimum of 1% of the national budget for disaster risk management.
Location and population affected
Socioeconomic background Zimbabwe was a lower-middle-income country with a population of 14.8 million at the time of the event in 2017 (16.7 million people in 2024). GNI per capita PPP (international) was US$2,160 with a GDP annual growth rate of 4.1%, and 30.4% living below the national poverty line.
Also in 2017, life expectancy at birth was 61 years, with 55.8 newborns out of 1,000 births dying before the age of five. Primary education was completed by 90.7% of the population. Thirty-seven percent had access to safe sanitation services, 44% had access to electricity, and 24% had access to the internet.
Affected regions
Forty-five of the country's 65 districts experienced flooding, prompting the government to declare a national disaster. Thirty-seven districts were severely affected, notably within the Matabeleland (North, West, South, and Central), Midlands, Masvingo, Mashonaland West, Manicaland, and Metropolitan provinces.
The low-lying regions of the country bore the brunt of the flooding impact, especially the Tsholotsho district in Matabeleland North, which was reported as one of the worst affected. Inadequate drainage and flat terrain contributed to flooding, as did proximity to the Gwayi River, adding vulnerability to flash floods. Extensive damage also affected regions in southern and western Zimbabwe, including Bulawayo and areas near the Mozambique border.
Impact on population In total, about 160,000 people were affected by the floods from December 2016 through March 2017, many of whom were women and school-age children.
Housing and displacement 2,579 houses were demolished, leaving thousands homeless. Almost 2,000 were displaced within the Tsholotsho districts of Matabeleland North, of which 859 people representing 190 families were sheltered in a nearby temporary camp. They included vulnerable groups, 54% children (159 children under the age of five), 57 elderly (including eight disabled), 86 chronically ill children, and 39 children on HIV antiretroviral therapy. Poor sanitary conditions in overcrowded shelters made people more vulnerable to diseases of the respiratory system and skin. As of June 2017, all temporary shelter camp evacuees were relocated to higher ground and provided with basic shelter materials by the government.
Infrastructure damage Breaches of 140 communities and privately owned dams caused extensive downstream infrastructure damage, especially in Matabeleland (South and North) and Midlands provinces. Roads were damaged and bridges collapsed, leaving almost all districts inaccessible.
Access to clean water, hygiene, and sanitation were severely impacted by the flood, particularly within overcrowded internally displaced persons (IDP) camps, heightening the risk of waterborne and vector-borne diseases, including cholera, typhoid, diarrhea, and malaria. Over 100,000 were without access to safe drinking water due to water infrastructure damage. Boreholes and latrines, including those at schools and healthcare facilities, were submerged and rendered unusable.
Impacted education 388 schools (287 primary and 101 secondary) were destroyed by flooding, disrupting studies and increasing stress for 166,216 children. Pupils from Mathuphula and Mahlaba primary schools were integrated at Sipepa Primary School, which had only six classrooms for 342 pupils and was quickly overcrowded.
Food insecurity With agriculture forming a primary livelihood, significant losses in livestock, crops, and food supplies heavily impacted the rural population, contributing to food insecurity. Approximately 60% of the crops sown during the flood in January 2017 suffered waterlogging, leading to decreased yields. Additional livelihoods were lost due to the flooding of 90% of small-scale mines, rendering them inoperable from the disaster. The affected households relied extensively on food assistance and donations.
Short- and long-term health impacts The floods produced a number of short- and long-term health consequences impacting the physical and mental wellbeing of victims. Poor access to healthcare due to insufficient medical infrastructure was compounded by a national healthcare strike at the time of the disaster, further magnifying the negative health consequences.
Short-term health consequences
Physical trauma The flood and landslides caused physical harm to people in the form of drowning, lightning strikes, fractures, lacerations, and other injuries. The floods resulted in 251 reported deaths and 128 injuries.
Waterborne diseases The destruction of water supply infrastructure during the flooding allowed pathogens to contaminate water sources, increasing the burden of cholera, dysentery, typhoid, and hepatitis A. About 100,000 people were exposed to unsafe drinking water by the disaster. The Zimbabwe Ministry of Health reported 1,934 suspected and 59 confirmed typhoid cases, leading to five deaths. In March 2017, four cases of cholera were reported in Chiredzi and Chipinge districts, including two deaths due to delayed treatment. People living with disabilities were additionally burdened by a lack of health and hygiene-enabling facilities.
Vector-borne diseases Flood waters stagnate, creating a good breeding environment for mosquitoes and increasing cases of mosquito-borne diseases. Eight flood-affected districts experienced malaria outbreaks during the disaster. 89,261 malaria cases, including 151 deaths, were reported in Zimbabwe from February through March. An increase in reported cases and deaths were blamed on flooding and poor access to healthcare facilities.
Burden on women and children