Fula (; ),Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh natively known as Fulfulde and also known as Fulani (; ) or Fulah (, , ; Adlam: , , ; Ajami: , , ), is a Senegambian language spoken by around 36.8 million people as a set of various dialects in a continuum that stretches across some 18 countries in West and Central Africa. Along with other related languages such as Serer and Wolof, it belongs to the Atlantic geographic group within Niger–Congo, more specifically to the Senegambian branch. Unlike most other Niger-Congo languages, Fula does not have tones.
It is spoken as a first language by the Fula people ("Fulani", ) from the Senegambia region and Guinea to Cameroon, Nigeria, and Sudan and by related groups such as the Toucouleur people in the Senegal River Valley. It is also spoken as a second language by various peoples in the region, such as the Kirdi of northern Cameroon and northeastern Nigeria.
Nomenclature
Several names are applied to the language, just as to the Fula people. They call their language Pulaar or Pular in the western dialects and Fulfulde in the central and eastern dialects. Fula, Fulah and Fulani in English come originally from Manding (especially Mandinka but also Malinke and Bamana) and Hausa, respectively. Peul in French, also occasionally found in literature in English, comes from Wolof.
Status
Fula is a lingua franca in Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Senegal, Gambia, northeastern Nigeria, Cameroon, Mali, Burkina Faso, northern Ghana, southern Niger, and northern Benin (in Borgou Region, where many speakers are bilingual), and a local language in many African countries, such as Mauritania, Sierra Leone, Togo, CAR, Chad, and Sudan. It has more than 95 million speakers in total.
Varieties While there are numerous varieties of Fula, it is typically regarded as a single language. Wilson (1989) states that "travelers over wide distances never find communication impossible," and Ka (1991) concludes that despite its geographic span and dialect variation, Fulfulde is still fundamentally one language. However, Ethnologue has found that nine different translations are needed and it treats those varieties as separate languages. Fula dialects are also often split into four regions: the Western area, Central area, Niger and Nigeria, and the Eastern area. The dialects are as follows:
Western Area
Pulaar Pular
Central Area
Maasina Fulfulde Gorgal Fulfulde Borgu Fulfulde
Niger and Nigeria
Nigerian Fulfulde (also known as Hausa States Fulani) Niger Lettugal Fulfulde
Eastern Area
Adamawa Fulfulde Bagirmi Fulfulde
Phonology
Consonants Labial Alveolar Palatal Velar GlottalNasal Plosiveplain ~ voiced ~ prenasal Implosive Fricative Trill Approximant The two sounds and , may be realized as affricate sounds and .
Vowels FrontCentralBackClose Mid Open
Short // vowel sounds can also be realized as [].
Morphology Fula is based on verbonominal roots, from which verbal, noun, and modifier words are derived. It uses suffixes (sometimes inaccurately called infixes, as they come between the root and the inflectional ending) to modify meaning. These suffixes often serve the same purposes in Fula that prepositions do in English.
Noun classes The Fula or Fulfulde language is characterized by a robust noun class system, with 24 to 26 noun classes being common across the Fulfulde dialects. Noun classes in Fula are abstract categories with some classes having semantic attributes that characterize a subset of that class' members, and others being marked by a membership too diverse to warrant any semantic categorization of the class' members. For example, classes are for stringy, long things, and another for big things, another for liquids, a noun class for strong, rigid objects, another for human or humanoid traits etc. Gender does not have any role in the Fula noun class system and the marking of gender is done with adjectives rather than class markers. Noun classes are marked by suffixes on nouns. These suffixes are the same as the class name, though they are frequently subject to phonological processes, most frequently the dropping of the suffix's initial consonant.
The table below illustrates the class name, the semantic property associated with class membership, and an example of a noun with its class marker. Classes 1 and 2 can be described as personal classes, classes 3–6 as diminutive classes, classes 7–8 as augmentative classes, and classes 9–25 as neutral classes. It is formed on the basis of McIntosh's 1984 description of Kaceccereere Fulfulde, which the author describes as "essentially the same" as David Arnott's 1970 description of the noun classes of the Gombe dialect of Fula. Thus, certain examples from Arnott also informed this table. Class name Meaning Example o Person singular laam-ɗo 'chief'; also loan words ɓe Person plural laam-ɓe 'chiefs' ngel Diminutive singular loo-ngel 'little pot' kal Diminutive quantities con-al 'small quantity of flour' ngum/kum Diminutive pejorative laam-ngum/laam-kum 'worthless little chief' kon/koy Diminutive plural ullu-kon/ullu-koy 'small cats/kittens' nde Various, including globular objects, places, times loo-nde 'storage pot' ndi Various, including uncountable nouns com-ri 'tiredness' ndu Various ullu-ndu 'cat' nga Various, including some large animals nood-a 'crocodile' nge mainly for 'cow,' 'fire,' 'sun' 'hunger,' nagg-e 'cow' ngo Various juu-ngo 'hand' ngu Various ɓow-ngu 'mosquito' ngal Various including augmentative singular ɗem-ngal 'tongue' ngol Various, often long things ɓog-gol 'rope' ngii/ngil Various including augmentative singular ɓog-gii/ɓog-gii 'big rope' ka Various laan-a 'boat' ki Various lek-ki 'tree' ko Various haak-o 'soup' kol 'Calf' 'foal' ɲal-ol 'calf', mol-ol 'foal' ɗam mainly for liquids lam-ɗam 'salt', ndiy-am 'water' ɗum Neutral maw-ɗum 'big thing' ɗe Nonhuman plural juu-ɗe 'hands' ɗi Nonhuman plural na'i 'cows'
Voice Verbs in Fula are usually classed in three voices: active, middle, and passive. Not every root is used in all voices. Some middle-voice verbs are reflexive.
A common example are verbs from the root - : , to wash (something) [active voice] , to wash (oneself) [middle voice] , to be washed [passive voice]
Consonant mutation Another feature of the language is initial consonant mutation between singular and plural forms of both nouns and verbs in most dialects. In Pular, however, only nouns experience consonant mutation, not verbs.
A simplified schema is: w ↔ b ↔ mb r ↔ d ↔ nd y ↔ j ↔ nj w ↔ g ↔ ng f ↔ p s ↔ c h ↔ k
Pronouns Fula has inclusive and exclusive first-person plural pronouns. The inclusive pronouns include both the speaker and those being spoken to, while the exclusive pronouns exclude the listeners.
The pronoun that corresponds to a given noun is determined by the noun class. Because men and women belong to the same noun class, the English pronouns "he" and "she" are translated into Fula by the same pronoun. However, depending on the dialect, there are some 25 different noun classes, each with its own pronoun. Sometimes those pronouns have both a nominative case (i.e., used as verb subject) and an accusative or dative case (i.e., used as a verb object) as well as a possessive form. Relative pronouns generally take the same form as the nominative.
Writing systems
Five different scripts have been or are used to write Fula. It was historically written in a form of the Arabic script known as Ajami, and although not standardized, it is still used by some today.
During the colonial period and after independence, the Latin script began to be used to write Fula,Peter Easton and Sonja Fagerberg-Diallo, "Senegal: Indigenous Language and Literature as a Non-profit Business. The ARED Story," IK Notes, No. 38, Nov. 2001 leading to efforts facilitated by UNESCO to standardize transcription. This process also addressed other African languages, incorporating use of modified letters to represent sounds particular to these languages, and it has been the basis for Latin-based Fula orthographies since the mid-1960s.
There were two unsuccessful efforts in the 1950s and 1960s to create a unique script to write Fulfulde, namely Fula Dita and Fula Ba. In 1989, the Adlam script was created specifically for Fula.
Adlam script
In the late 1980s and early 1990s, two teenage brothers, Ibrahima and Abdoulaye Barry from the Nzérékoré Region of Guinea, created the Adlam script, which accurately represents all the sounds of Fulani. The script is written from right to left and includes 28 letters with 5 vowels and 23 consonants.
Arabic script Fula has also been written in the Arabic script or the Ajami script since before European colonization by many scholars and learned people including Usman dan Fodio and the early emirs of the northern Nigeria emirates. This continues to a certain degree and notably in some areas like Guinea and Cameroon.
Fula also has Arabic loanwords.
Latin alphabet
When written using the Latin script, Fula uses the following additional special "hooked" characters to distinguish meaningfully different sounds in the language: Ɓ/ɓ , Ɗ/ɗ , Ŋ/ŋ , Ɲ/ɲ , Ƴ/ƴ . The letters c, j, and r, respectively represent the sounds [], [], and []. Double vowel characters indicate that the vowels are elongated. An apostrophe (ʼ) is used as a glottal stop. It uses the five vowel system denoting vowel sounds and their lengths. In Nigeria ʼy substitutes ƴ, and in Senegal Ñ/ñ is used instead of ɲ.
Sample Fula alphabet a, aa, b, mb (or nb), ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, ee, f, g, ng, h, i, ii, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ɲ (ny or ñ), o, oo, p, r, s, t, u, uu, w, y, ƴ (or y),
The letters q, v, x, z are used in some cases for loan words. Fula AlphabetsABNbƁC D NdƊEFGNgHIJNjKLMNŊƝOPRSTUWYƳLowercaseabnbɓcdndɗefgnghijnjklmnŋɲoprstuwyƴIPA~~~~~~~
Long vowels are written doubled: <aa, ee, ii, oo, uu> The standard Fulfulde alphabet adopted during the UNESCO-sponsored expert meeting in Bamako in March 1966 is as follows: a, b, mb, ɓ, c, d, nd, ɗ, e, f, g, ng, h, i, j, nj, k, l, m, n, ŋ, ny (later ɲ or ñ), o, p, r, s, t, u, w, y, ƴ, .
Sample text The following is a sample text in Fula of Article 1 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights. The first line is in Adlam, the second in Latin script, the third in IPA.
See also Pular grammar (a presentation for one variety of Fula) David Whitehorn Arnott
Notes
References
External links
Fulfulde Ajami script how to Fula- Language Gulper fulfulde app on googleplay Fulfulde Language Family Report (SIL) – includes maps of the dialects D. W. Arnott. The Nominal and Verbal Systems of Fula General Introduction webPulaaku Listen to a sample of Adamawa Fulfulde from Global Recordings Network Adlam alphabet
Fula on the web Below are some websites from different countries that use the Latin alphabet of Fula/Fulfulde: Nigeria: Nigeria: Nigeria: Mauritania: Mauritania: Guinea: Guinea: Guinea: Guinea: Sierra Leone: Fuuta Tooro: