Taro (; Colocasia esculenta) is a root vegetable. It is the most widely cultivated species of several plants in the family Araceae that are used as vegetables for their corms, leaves, stems and petioles. Taro corms are a food staple in African, Caribbean, Oceanian, East Asian, Southeast Asian and South Asian cultures (similar to yams).
Description Colocasia esculenta is a perennial, tropical plant primarily grown as a root vegetable for its edible, starchy corm. The plant has rhizomes of different shapes and sizes. Leaves are up to and sprout from the rhizome. They are dark green above and light green beneath. They are triangular-ovate, sub-rounded and mucronate at the apex, with the tip of the basal lobes rounded or sub-rounded. The petiole is high. The path can be up to long. The spadix is about three fifths as long as the spathe, with flowering parts up to in diameter. The female portion is at the fertile ovaries intermixed with sterile white ones. Neuters grow above the females, and are rhomboid or irregular orium lobed, with six or eight cells. The appendage is shorter than the male portion.
Similar species Taro is among the most widely grown species in the group of tropical perennial plants that are colloquially referred to as "elephant ears", when grown as ornamental plants. Other plants with the same nickname include certain species of related aroids possessing large, heart-shaped leaves, usually within such genera as Alocasia, Caladium, Monstera, Philodendron, Syngonium, Thaumatophyllum, and Xanthosoma.
Taro is related to Xanthosoma and Caladium, plants commonly grown ornamentally, and like them, it is sometimes loosely called elephant ear. Similar taro varieties include giant taro (Alocasia macrorrhizos), swamp taro (Cyrtosperma merkusii), and arrowleaf elephant's ear (Xanthosoma sagittifolium).
Taxonomy
The 18th-century Swedish biologist Carl Linnaeus originally described two species, Colocasia esculenta and Colocasia antiquorum, but many later botanists consider them both to be members of a single, very variable species, the correct name for which is Colocasia esculenta.
Etymology The Ancient Greek word (, lit. 'lotus root') is the origin of the Modern Greek word (); the word for the plant is in Greek, in Turkish, and qulqas () in Arabic. These were borrowed by Latin as colocasia, thus becoming the genus name Colocasia. The specific epithet, , means "edible" in Latin.
The English name taro was borrowed from the Māori language when Captain Cook first observed Colocasia plantations in New Zealand in 1769. The form taro or talo is widespread among Polynesian languages:*talo: taro (Colocasia esculenta) – entry in the Polynesian Lexicon Project Online (Pollex). in Tahitian; in Samoan and Tongan; in Hawaiian; tao in Marquesan. All these forms originate from Proto-Polynesian *talo, which itself descended from Proto-Oceanic *talos (cf. in Fijian) and Proto-Austronesian *tales (cf. in Sundanese & in Javanese). However, irregularity in sound correspondences among the cognate forms in Austronesian suggests that the term may have been borrowed and spread from an Austroasiatic language perhaps in Borneo (cf. proto-Mon-Khmer *t2rawʔ, Khasi , Khmu sroʔ, Mlabri kwaaj,...).
Distribution and habitat Colocasia esculenta is thought to be native to Southern India and Southeast Asia, but is widely naturalised.Kolchaar, K. 2006 Economic Botany in the Tropics, Macmillan India Colocasia is thought to have originated in the Indomalayan realm, perhaps in East India, Nepal, and Bangladesh. It spread by cultivation eastward into Southeast Asia, East Asia and the Pacific Islands; westward to Egypt and the eastern Mediterranean Basin; and then southward and westward from there into East Africa and West Africa, where it spread to the Caribbean and Americas.
Taro was probably first native to the lowland wetlands of Malaysia, where it is called talas. In modern times it is also called keladi Cina (literally Chinese yam).
In Australia, C. esculenta var. aquatilis is thought to be native to the Kimberley region of Western Australia; the common variety esculenta is now naturalised and considered an invasive weed in Western Australia, the Northern Territory, Queensland and New South Wales.
In Europe, C. esculenta is cultivated in Cyprus and it's called Colocasi, (Κολοκάσι in Greek) and it is certified as a PDO product. It is also found in the Greek island of Ikaria and cited as a vital source of food for the island during World War II.
In Turkey, C. esculenta is locally known as gölevez and mainly grown on the Mediterranean coast, such as the Alanya district of Antalya Province and the Anamur district of Mersin Province.
In Macaronesia this plant has become naturalized, probably as a result of the Portuguese discoveries and is frequently used in the Macaronesian diet as an important carbohydrate source.
In the southeastern United States, this plant is recognized as an invasive species.Colocasia esculenta. Texasinvasives.orgColocasia esculenta, Florida Invasive PlantsColocasia esculenta , University of Florida Many populations can be commonly found growing near drain ditches and bayous in Houston, Texas.
Cultivation
History Taro is one of the most ancient cultivated crops.new-agri.co Country profile: Samoa, New Agriculturist Online , accessed June 12, 2006 Taro is found widely in tropical and subtropical regions of South Asia, East Asia, Southeast Asia, and Papua New Guinea, and northern Australia and in Maldives. Taro is highly polymorphic, making taxonomy and distinction between wild and cultivated types difficult. It is believed that they were domesticated independently multiple times, with authors giving possible locations as New Guinea, Mainland Southeast Asia, and northeastern India, based largely on the assumed native range of the wild plants. However, more recent studies have pointed out that wild taro may have a much larger native distribution than previously assumed, and wild breeding types may also likely be indigenous to other parts of Island Southeast Asia.
Archaeological traces of taro exploitation have been recovered from numerous sites, though whether these were cultivated or wild types can not be ascertained. They include the Niah Caves of Borneo around 10,000 years ago, Ille Cave of Palawan, dated to at least 11,000 year ago; Kuk Swamp of New Guinea, dated to between 8250 BC and 7960 BC; and Kilu Cave in the Solomon Islands dated to around 28,000 to 20,000 years ago. In the case of Kuk Swamp, there is evidence of formalized agriculture emerging by about 10,000 years ago, with evidence of cultivated plots, though which plant was cultivated remains unknown.
Taro were carried into the Pacific Islands by Austronesian peoples from around 1300 BC, where they became a staple crop of Polynesians, along with other types of "taros", like Alocasia macrorrhizos, Amorphophallus paeoniifolius, and Cyrtosperma merkusii. They are the most important and the most preferred among the four, because they were less likely to contain the irritating raphides present in the other plants. Taro is also identified as one of the staples of Micronesia, from archaeological evidence dating back to the pre-colonial Latte Period (c. 900 – 1521 AD), indicating that it was also carried by Micronesians when they colonized the islands. Taro pollen and starch residue have also been identified in Lapita sites, dated to between 1100 BC and 550 BC. Taro was later spread to Madagascar as early as the 1st century AD.
Modern production In 2022, world production of taro was 18 million tonnes, led by Nigeria with 46% of the total (table).
Taro has the fifth largest production among root and tuber crops worldwide.Oladimeji, J.J.; Kumar, P.L.; Abe, A.; Vetukuri, R.R.; Bhattacharjee, R.(2022). Taro in West Africa: Status, Challenges, and Opportunities. Agronomy, 12, 2094. https://doi.org/10.3390/agronomy12092094 The average yield of taro is around 7 tons per hectare.
Taro can be grown in paddy fields where water is abundant or in upland situations where water is supplied by rainfall or supplemental irrigation. Taro is one of the few crops (along with rice and lotus) that can be grown under flooded conditions. Flooded cultivation has some advantages over dry-land cultivation: higher yields (about double), out-of-season production (which may result in higher prices), and weed control (which flooding facilitates). Manmade floodplains particular to taro cultivation are commonly found throughout tropical Polynesian societies called repo.
Taro production – 2022 Country (Millions of tonnes) 8.2 1.9 1.9 1.7 1.7 World 17.7Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations
Like most root crops, taro and eddoes do well in deep, moist or even swampy soils where the annual rainfall exceeds . Eddoes are more resistant to drought and cold. The crop attains maturity within six to twelve months after planting in dry-land cultivation and after twelve to fifteen months in wetland cultivation. The crop is harvested when the plant height decreases and the leaves turn yellow.
Quality control Taro generally commands a higher market price in comparison to other root crops, so the quality control measures throughout the production process are rather essential. The sizes found in most markets are 1–2 kg and 2–3 kg. The best size for packaging and for consumers is 1–2 kg. To guarantee the product meets the expected high standards upon reaching the consumer, there are some common grading standards for fresh corms:Jennings, D. (2009). Tropical Root and Tuber Crops. Cassava, Sweet Potato, Yams and Aroids. By V. Lebot. Wallingford, UK: CABI (2009), pp. 413. ISBN 978-1-84593-424-8. Experimental Agriculture, 45(3). doi:10.1017/S0014479709007832 No excess soil, softness or decay No bruises or deep cuts Spherical to round shape No major abnormal deformities No roots Approximately 5 cm (under 2") of petiole left attached to the corm No double-tops
Due to the high moisture content of the corms, and the plant's natural love of humidity, mold and disease can easily develop, causing root rot or decay. To prolong their shelf lives, the corms are usually stored at cooler temperatures, ranging from 10 to 15 degrees Celsius and maintained at a relative humidity of 80% to 90%. For packaging, the corms are commonly placed in polypropylene bags or ventilated wooden crates to minimize condensation and 'sweating.' During export, a weight allowance of approximately 5% above the net weight is included to account for potential shrinkage during transit. For commercial shipping and export purposes, refrigeration is used; for instance, corms with 5 to 10 centimeters of petiole remaining are exported from Fiji to New Zealand in wooden boxes. They are then transported via refrigerated container, chilled to around 5° Celsius.Bussell, W.T., Scheffer, J.J.C. and Douglas, J.A. (2004). Recent research on taro production in New Zealand. In: Guarino, L., Taylor, M. and Osborn, T. (eds) Proceedings of the 3rd Taro Symposium. Secretariat of the Pacific Community, Nadi, Fiji, pp. The corms can be maintained for up to six weeks in good condition; most good-quality corms may even be replanted and grown by the consumer, thanks to the species' prolific nature and hardiness.
Propagation In the early 1970s, one of the earliest taro breeding programs was initiated in the Solomon Islands to create cultivars that were resistant to taro leaf blight. After taro leaf blight was introduced to Samoa in 1993, another breeding program was initiated. In this program Asian varieties that were resistant to TLB were used. The breeding program helped restore the taro export industry in Samoa.
Corm yield and corm quality appear to be negatively correlated. In order to produce the uniform fresh healthy corms that the market desires, early maturing cultivars with a growth period of 5 to 7 months can be used.
Selection methods and programs