Feminist separatism or separatist feminism is the theory that feminist opposition to patriarchy can be achieved through women's sex segregation from men.Christine Skelton, Becky Francis, Feminism and the Schooling Scandal, Taylor & Francis, 2009 , p. 104. Much of the theorising is based on lesbian feminism.
Author Marilyn Frye describes feminist separatism as "separation of various sorts or modes from men and from institutions, relationships, roles and activities that are male-defined, male-dominated, and operating for the benefit of males and the maintenance of male privilege – this separation being initiated or maintained, at will, by women."Marilyn Frye, "Some Reflections on Separatism and Power". In Feminist Social Thought: A Reader, Diana Tietjens Meyers (ed.) (1997) New York: Routledge, pp. 406–414.
Origins
Cultural critic Alice Echols describes the emergence of a lesbian separatist movement as a response to homophobic sentiments expressed by feminist organizations like the National Organization for Women. Echols argued that "the introduction of (homo)sex troubled many heterosexual feminists who had found in the women's movement a welcome respite from sexuality." Thus, Echols considered separatism as a lesbian strategy to untie lesbianism from sex so heterosexual women in the feminist movement felt more comfortable.Echols, Alice. "The Eruption of Difference", from Daring to be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967–1975, 1989, University of Minnesota Press, , p. 218.
Cell 16, which was founded in 1968 by Roxanne Dunbar, has been cited as the first organization to advance the concept of separatist feminism.Saulnier, Christine F. Feminist Theories and Social Work: Approaches and Applications, 1996, .Bevacqua, Maria Rape on the Public Agenda: Feminism and the Politics of Sexual Assault, 2000, .Echols, Alice. Daring to Be Bad: Radical Feminism in America, 1967-75, University of Minnesota Press, 1990, , p. 164. Echols argued that Cell 16 helped establish the theoretical foundations of lesbian separatism, and is an example of heterosexual feminist separatism, as the group never advocated lesbianism as a political strategy.
In No More Fun and Games, Cell 16's radical feminist periodical, members Roxanne Dunbar and Lisa Leghorn advised women to "separate from men who are not consciously working for female liberation."Dunbar, Leghorn. "The Man's Problem", from No More Fun and Games, Nov 1969, quoted in Echols, p. 165. They advised women to have periods of celibacy (rather than lesbian relationships) which they considered to be "nothing more than a personal solution".
Meaning and purpose Proponents of feminist separatism have varied opinions on the meaning of feminist and lesbian separatism; major debates include the degree to which women should separate from men, whether it is a strict ideology or a strategy, and how it works to benefit women.
General feminist separatism
In a tract on socialist feminism published in 1972, the Hyde Park Chapter of the Chicago Women's Liberation Union differentiated between separatism as an "ideological position" and as a "tactical position".Chicago Women's Liberation Union, Hyde Park Chapter. Socialist Feminism: A Strategy for the Women's Movement, 1972 (booklet). In the same document, they further distinguished between separatism as "personal practice" and as "political position".
In lesbian feminist Marilyn Frye's (1978) essay Notes on Separatism and Power she posits female separatism as a strategy practiced by all women, at some point, and present in many feminist projects (one might cite women's refuges, electoral quotas or Women's Studies programmes). She argues that it is only when women practice it self-consciously as separation from men, that it is treated with controversy (or as she suggests, hysteria). Male separatism on the other hand (one might consider gentleman's clubs, labor unions, sports teams, the military, and more arguably decision-making positions in general) is seen as quite a normal, even expedient phenomenon, while it is mostly not practiced self-consciously.
Some feminist separatists believe that men cannot make positive contributions to the feminist movement and that even well-intentioned men replicate the dynamics of patriarchy.
Lesbian separatism
Separatist lesbianism is a type of feminist separatism specific to lesbians.
Separatism has been considered by lesbians as both a temporary strategy and as a lifelong practice.
Charlotte Bunch, an early member of The Furies Collective, viewed separatism as a strategy, a "first step" period, or temporary withdrawal from mainstream activism to accomplish specific goals or enhance personal growth.Davis, Flora. Moving the Mountain: The Women's Movement in America since 1960, University of Illinois Press, 1999, , p271 In addition to advocating withdrawal from working, personal or casual relationships with men, The Furies Collective recommended that lesbian separatists relate "only (with) women who cut their ties to male privilege"Bunch, Charlotte/The Furies Collective, "Lesbians in Revolt", in The Furies: Lesbian/Feminist Monthly, vol. 1, January 1972, pp.8–9 and suggest that "as long as women still benefit from heterosexuality, receive its privileges and security, they will at some point have to betray their sisters, especially Lesbian sisters who do not receive those benefits." This was part of a larger idea that Bunch articulated in Learning from Lesbian Separatism (1976), that "in a male-supremacist society, heterosexuality is a political institution,"Bunch, Charlotte. Learning from Lesbian Separatism, Ms. Magazine, Nov. 1976 and the practice of separatism is a way to escape its domination.
In her 1988 book, Lesbian Ethics: Toward New Value, lesbian philosopher Sarah Hoagland alludes to lesbian separatism's potential to encourage lesbians to develop healthy community ethics based on shared values. Hoagland articulates a distinction (originally noted by lesbian separatist author and anthologist, Julia Penelope) between a lesbian subculture and a lesbian community; membership in the subculture being "defined in negative terms by an external, hostile culture", and membership in the community being based on "the values we believe we can enact here".
Bette Tallen believes that lesbian separatism, unlike some other separatist movements, is "not about the establishment of an independent state, it is about the development of an autonomous self-identity and the creation of a strong solid lesbian community".Tallen, Bette S. Lesbian Separatism: A Historical and Comparative Perspective, in For Lesbians Only: A Separatist Anthology, Onlywomen Press, 1988, , p141
Lesbian historian Lillian Faderman describes the separatist impulses of lesbian feminism which created culture and cultural artifacts as "giving love between women greater visibility" in broader culture.Faderman, Lillian. Odd Girls and Twilight Lovers, Columbia University Press, , p220 Faderman also believes that lesbian feminists who acted to create separatist institutions did so to "bring their ideals about integrity, nurturing the needy, self-determination and equality of labor and rewards into all aspects of institution-building and economics".
In a United States context, the practice of lesbian separatism sometimes incorporates concepts related to queer nationalism and political lesbianism. Some individuals who identify as lesbian separatists are also associated with the practice of Dianic paganism.Empowering the Goddess Within , by Jessica AltonGoddesses and Witches: Liberation and Countercultural Feminism , by Rosemary Ruether
Radical lesbianism
The term 'radical lesbianism' can be seen as both synonymous with and differentiated from lesbian separatism.
Radical lesbianism, amongst other similar movements, represents a rupture with the broader feminist movements. They offer an attempt by some feminists and lesbians to try to reconcile what they see as inherent conflicts with the stated goals of feminism. Many of these conflicts and ruptures are a result of issues arising from broader and nationally specifically cultural narratives around women. Some of them are created independently in response to these needs, while others draw inspiration from radical movements in other countries. This results in no single history of radical lesbianism, but of separate national struggles.
Internationally, radical lesbians often took advantage of convergent international spaces to create their own events to increase the visibility of lesbianism. Examples of this include the 1994 lesbian march in New York on the 25th anniversary of Stonewall, the 1995 Beijing hosted World Women's Conference, and the event held during the 1997 Amsterdam hosted Gay Games.
United States In the United States, the movement started in 1970, when seven women (including lesbian activist Del Martin) confronted the North Conference of Homophile Organizations about the relevance of the gay rights movement to the women within it. The delegates passed a resolution in favor of women's liberation, but Del Martin felt they had not done enough, and wrote "If That's All There Is", an influential 1970 essay in which she decried gay rights organizations as sexist.Mark Blasius, Shane Phelan We are everywhere: a historical sourcebook in gay and lesbian politics, Routledge, 1997 p. 352Vern L. Bullough Before Stonewall: activists for gay and lesbian rights in historical context, Routledge, 2002 p. 160 The Furies formed a commune in 1971 open to lesbians only, where they put out a monthly newspaper called The Furies. The Furies consisted of twelve women, aged eighteen to twenty-eight, all feminists, all lesbians, all white, with three children among them.Dudley Clendinen, Adam Nagourney Out for Good: The Struggle to Build a Gay Rights Movement in America, Simon & Schuster, 2001 , p. 104 These activities continued into the early part of the decade.Bonnie Zimmerman Lesbian histories and cultures: an encyclopedia Garland Pub., 2000 , p. 322Penny A. Weiss, Marilyn Friedman Feminism and community, Temple University Press, 1995 p. 131 Other well known lesbian separatists groups include The Gutter Dykes, The Gorgons, and The Radicalesbians.
French-speaking countries In Francophone countries, the term radical lesbian movement is used instead of lesbian separatism. It is roughly analogous to English-language lesbian separatism. Inspired by the writings of philosopher Monique Wittig,Turcotte, Louise. (foreword) The Straight Mind and Other Essays, Monique Wittig, Beacon Press, 1992, , p ix the movement originated in France in the early 1980s, spreading soon after to the Canadian province of Quebec. Wittig, referencing the ideas of Simone de Beauvoir, challenges concepts of biological determinism, arguing that those in power construct sex difference and race difference for the purpose of masking conflicts of interest and maintaining domination.Hoagland, Sarah Lucia. Lesbian Ethics: Towards a New Value, Institute for Lesbian Studies, Palo Alto, Ca. She and her allies saw heterosociality as well as heterosexuality as aspects of hetero-power, strongly to be resisted.Claire Duchen, Feminism in France (1986) p. 23-4
Latin America
Radical lesbianism developed in Latin America during the 1970s. Like other parts of the movement, it came in response to specific national conditions. Radical lesbianism began to develop in Mexico in 1977, led by the group Mujeres guerreras que abren caminos y esparcen flores (Oikabeth). The movement arose in Chile in 1984 in response to national conditions resulting from the dictatorship. Costa Rica developed a radical lesbianism movement in 1986. During the 1980s and 1990s, life for lesbians in Latin America was difficult because of lesbophobic repression across the region. Consequently, the communities in Mexico, Costa Rica, Puerto Rico, Argentina and Brazil began working more closely together on shared goals.