Irrationalism is a philosophical movement that emerged in the early 19th century, emphasizing the non-rational dimension of human life, and criticising rationalism. As they reject logic, irrationalists argue that instinct and feelings are superior to reason in the research of knowledge. The term has often been used as a pejorative designation of criticisms against rationalism as a whole.
The philosophy of rationalism, understood as having first emerged in the writings of Francis Bacon and René Descartes, has received a variety of criticisms since its inception. These may entail a view that certain things are beyond rational understanding, that total rationality is insufficient or even harmful to human life, or that people are not instinctively rational and progressive.Duignan, Encyclopædia Britannica
Overview The term "irrationalism" does not refer to an independent philosophical movement, but is a moment and component of various philosophical movements and systems. Irrationalism in the true sense refers to worldviews that are particularly characterized by the moment of irrationality and that also put rational thinking aside in favor of alternative, higher cognitive functions, often in favor of a certain form of intuition. In this respect, the term has found a more specific use for certain philosophical positions.
The core tenent of irrationalism is to be opposed to philosophy of rationalism. Since the term irrationalism is often used as a derogatory accusation to criticize other positions as unreasonable, unscientific and thus wrong, it is controversial as a scientific category, especially in individual cases. Otherwise, however, the term is often used unspecifically and – like its counterpart, rationalism – in very different meanings.
Depending on the area in which theses on irrationalism are represented, one can distinguish between epistemological and ontological (sometimes metaphysical) positions of irrationalism.(See Categories of Irrationalism) The rejection of rationality as the only source of meaningful knowledge has far-reaching effects on the assessment of scientific methodology. Therefore, irrationalist positions are often directed against exclusively rational scientific and social theories of development and progress. Traditions of philosophy are also specifically assessed according to these premises.
History
Irrationalism has its roots in ancient philosophy, with its foundational elements present in schools such as skepticism, sophism and neo-platonism.
The philosophy of rationalism, specifically classical rationalism, gained prominence during the Enlightenment, and was presented by the works and studies of René Descartes, Gottfried Leibniz, Baruch Spinoza and Immanuel Kant. Regardless, even during the Age of Enlightenment, these thinkers' notions were being already challenged. Bourke, Vernon J., Rationalism, p. 263 in Runes (1962).
Modern irrationalist positions are often traced back to their origins in German idealism and the Romantic movement. Johann Georg Hamann, Friedrich Heinrich Jacobi, and Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von SchellingLukács 1953, "Chapter II. The founding of irrationalism in the period between two revolutions (1789-1848)", p. 95-191 are noted pioneers of this philosophy. The common factor for the attribution is usually that of the intellectual views and aesthetic intuitions which Immanuel Kant was opposed to, given a special priority.
Friedrich Engels polemicized that Schelling's 1854 lecture, known as "Philosophie der Offenbarung", was the "first attempt to smuggle belief in authority, emotional mysticism, and gnostic fantasy into the free science of thought." Older histories of philosophy, such as that of Wilhelm Windelband, also characterized Schelling and related positions as "irrationalist metaphysics." Romantic movement has been attributed with an irrationalist attitude, although more recent studies also emphasize that the Age of Enlightenment impulses also arose from the aforementioned movement.
György Lukács has argued that the first period of irrationalism arose with Schelling and Kierkegaard, in a fight against the dialectical concept of progress embraced by German idealism. Irrationalism is notably researched by Italian academics, who study it in regards with the (cultural movement spearheaded by Gabriele D'Annunzio)Edoardo Sanguineti, Lettere Italiane, vol. 11, No. 1 (Gennaio-Marzo 1959), pp. 57–88, Casa Editrice Leo S. Olschki s.r.l. and Italian Fascism.
Oswald Spengler believed that the materialist vision of Karl Marx was based on nineteenth-century science, while the twentieth century would be the age of psychology:
Numerous historians also trace important elements of the ideology of German National Socialism back to irrationalist, particularly romantic, origins.(See Discussion on 20th century Irrationalism)
Categories of Irrationalism In philosophy it is agreed to distinguish two major categories of irrationalism; epistemological and ontological (sometimes defined as metaphysical instead).« Irrationalisme », Grand Larousse Encyclopédique, Paris, Larousse, 1960–1964.Mattingly, James, ed. (October 22, 2022):"Irrationalism argues in favor of two theses in opposition to SR [scientific rationalism]. First, irrationalism claims that intuition, instinct, feeling, or faith, rather than reason the sources of human knowledge (epistemological irrationalism). Second, irrationalism holds that the universe is governed by irratonal forces (ontological irrationalism) contrast, SR asserts that reason (and not intuition, instinct, or faith) is the mental basis for scientific knowledge. Irrationalism, according to SR, is a philosophy that seeks reasons to justify irrationality, which is a contradiction on its own terms. On the other hand, and contrary to ontological irrationalism, SR asserts that the assumption that nature and culture are Irrational has been largely refuted by the advancement of science. All of these arguments can also be said about the differences between SR and intuitionism."
Epistemological irrationalism Representatives of this school of thought declare that human reason alone is incapable of recognizing the foundations, connections and laws of objective reality. As alternatives to descriptive and normative explanations of the world, some "higher" cognitive functions such as essential perception, faith, intuition or "direct experience" are suggested.
In contrast to rationalism, purely rational knowledge is not considered to be true knowledge, which must also rely on feelings, the mind or the soul. These views often play a role in connection with religious, esoteric and occult, but also political views.
This thought is affirmed by the skeptics (Pyrrho, Hume), the agnostics, the sophists, the Kantian idealists, the positivists, the Nietzscheans, etc.
Ontological irrationalism For the irrationalist in a metaphysical interpretation, certain areas (such as life, psychological processes, history) are considered irrational, i.e. not exclusively governed by rational laws and laws. Irrationality is declared to be the essence of reality itself, regardless of the human ability to know. The possibility of gaining scientific knowledge in these areas is thus denied.
Apart from mystical positions, the majority of theology in Christianity and other religions rejects this view and instead assumes a natural or divine order. Metaphysical irrationalism can thus also be seen as the opposite of naturalism, although it does not imply any supernatural entities.
This position is taken by mystical thinkers (Eckhart, Boehme), the neoplatonists (Plotinus, Paracelsus), the romantic philosophers (Schelling) and spiritualists (Bergson).
Forms of Irrationalism There is controversy over whether the term irrationalism is suitable as a historical category and to which positions it can be attributed.
Lebensphilosophie
History of irrationalism greatly overlaps with that of Lebensphilosophie. Both philosophical movements recognize Arthur Schopenhauer as a major 19th century thinker, with Schopenhauer's ontological irrationalism, describing that world as not organized in a rational way. Since humans are born as bodies-manifestations of an irrational striving for meaning, they are vulnerable to pain and suffering.
Likewise, Friedrich NietzscheLukács 1953, "Chapter III. Nietzsche as founder of irrationalism in the imperialist period" and Henri Bergson are both recognized as Lebensphilosophie pioneers and representatives of irrationalism. In his 1886 book, Beyond Good and Evil, Nietzsche emphasized that humans by nature are irrational and criticized attempts of "rationality" of trying to neglect the fact.
Neo-Hegelianism
Certain positions of neo-Hegelianism are considered to fall in form of irrationalism.Lukács 1953, "Chapter V. Neo-Hegelianism", p. 547-584
Existentialism
Existentialism is considered form of irrationalism.Duignan, Encyclopædia Britannica;"In existentialism, Søren Kierkegaard, Jean-Paul Sartre, and Albert Camus all despaired of making sense out of an incoherent world; and each chose his own alternative to reason—the leap of faith, radical freedom, and heroic revolt, respectively." Søren Kierkegaard's assessment of religious belief is controversial. Some attribute fideism to him because he excludes religious truths from access by reason.
An expression of modern irrationalism is the thought of Martin Heidegger in his final phase, who maintains that man's thought goes beyond what metaphysics and science have tried to fix dogmatically, making sure that "... thought will only begin when it realizes that the reason glorified for centuries is the most bitter enemy of thought."M. Heidegger, La sentenza di Nietzsche «Dio è morto», in Sentieri interrotti, La Nuova Italia, Firenze 1979, p.246 ASIN: B0799Q4972
Aestheticism (Futurism, Dadaism) Connected to irrationalism is also aestheticism, which arose between the 19th and 20th centuries, particularly present in the West European Decadent movement and the Italian . In his 1889 novel, Il Piacere, which is determined to be partly autobiographical, Gabriele D'Annunzio describes how the aesthete lets himself be guided only by the perennial flow of sensations, without following a logical or moral order.
In the artistic-literary field, the theme of irrationalism, as a reaction to the positivist and rationalist tendencies of bourgeois society, is found both in decadentism and especially in its counterpart: futurism. Salvatore Cingari, Benedetto Croce e la crisi della civiltà europea, p. 329, Rubbettino, Catanzaro 2003, IBSN: 9788849806212 In it, the exaltation of technology and progress prevails, accompanied by a rejection of pre-established schemes and traditional rules. The use of "free words" testifies, for example, to the will to transgress the logic of syntactic-grammatical constructs, while activism and the intoxication of living are celebrated as key elements of its manifesto.
Finally, the aesthetic current of Dadaism falls within irrationalism. It was born as a protest against the atrocities of the First World War and later became a sort of "artistic nihilism". Reason and logic had left humanity the horrors of war, and the only way of salvation was the rejection of logic to embrace anarchy and the irrational. However, it has been observed that anarchy and the rejection of values and order retain a certain rationality: the systematic destruction of values is not irrational, if one thinks that it must be put into action.
Other forms of irrationalism Elements of irrationalism have also been identified by various quarters in some philosophical positions in 20th century philosophy and contemporary philosophy. These attributions are, of course, controversial. They have been made, for example, for: Personalism