Women in the legal profession and related occupations include lawyers (also called barristers, advocates, solicitors, attorneys or legal counselors), paralegals, prosecutors (also called District Attorneys or Crown Prosecutors), judges, legal scholars (including feminist legal theorists), law professors and law school deans.
History
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, the first woman to pass a law degree was Eliza Orme, who graduated from University College London in 1888. She was not allowed to qualify to practice as either a solicitor or a barrister. It was not until 1919, with the passage of the Sex Disqualification (Removal) Act 1919 that women could enter the legal profession. This had been challenged in 1914 in a case, Bebb v Law Society, in which the Court of Appeal found that women did not fall within the legal definition of "persons" and so could not become lawyers. The 1919 act also allowed women to serve on juries for the first time.
Saudi Arabia Saudi Arabia, along with several other Gulf countries, has decided to put an emphasis on promoting jobs rather than oil production to help their economy.Alselaimi, Raneem, and Alawiya Allui. "Female Employment in Saudi Arabia: Legislative Encouragements and Socio-cultural Support." In Int'l Conference Proceedings, p. 88. 2018. The Saudi government took initiatives to boost female participation in the labor force. Historically, women were not encouraged to participate in professional academic concentrations, including law.
However, in 2004, the government allowed law degree programs to be studied in women's universities. Four years later, the first female students graduated with law degrees, but could not practice in courts, which consisted of an all-male judiciary. Women with law degrees could only work as "legal consultants," which barred them from representing clients.
In 2011, amongst the political uprising climate in the Middle East, female lawyers pushed a social media campaign called ''I am a female lawyer." The campaign brought attention to the discriminatory treatment of women who were not allowed to practice law in their own countries, despite their degrees. In October 2012, King Abdullah announced his acceptance of a petition by a group of female law graduates. The 3,000 signatures permitted the registration by women for law licenses. However, the Ministry of Justice acted otherwise and refused to process registration applications from female law graduates.
In April 2013, the Justice Ministry allowed a King Abdulaziz University graduate from Jeddah, Arwa al-Hujaili, to become the first female legal trainee in Saudi Arabia. As a trainee, she was allowed to practice law, similar to a "legal consultant," but given a full license after three years of apprenticeship.
In October 2013, a new policy passed allowing all women to seek a legal license to practice law after receiving a university degree in law and three years of apprenticeship.
On October 6, 2013, Bayan Mahmoud Al-Zahran received the first license from the Justice Ministry, thus becoming the first licensed female lawyer in Saudi Arabia. Zahran began her legal career with dedication to domestic violence issues, then focused on criminal law. The following month, Zahran represented a client, the first time for a Saudi woman, amongst the General Court in Jidda. In January 2014, Zahran opened the first female law firm. Her firm focuses on women's issues.
As of November 2015, thousands of Saudi women have degrees in law, but only sixty-seven are licensed to practice. In 2017, Saudi female students attended universities at a gross enrollment rate higher than Saudi male students, at 97.5% and 41.6%, respectively.
United States representation
The ABA reported that in 2014, women made up 34% of the legal profession and men made up 66%. In private practice law firms, women make up 20.2% of partners, 17% of equity partners and 4% of managing partners in the 200 biggest law firms. At the junior level of the profession, women make up 44.8% of associates and 45.3% of summer associates. In 2014 in Fortune 500 corporations, 21% of the general counsels were women and 79% were men. Of these 21% of women general counsels, 81.9% were Caucasian, 10.5% were African-American, 5.7% were Hispanic, 1.9% were Asian-American/Pacific Islanders, and 0% were Middle Eastern. In 2009, women were 21.6% of law school Deans, 45.7% of Associate, Vice-Deans or Deputy Deans and 66.2% of Assistant Deans. Women have better representation on law school law reviews. In the top 50 schools as ranked by US World and News Reports in 2012–2013, women made up 46% of leadership positions and 38% of editor-in-chief positions.
In 2012, women held 27.1% of all federal and state judge positions, while men held 73.9%. In 2014, three of nine Supreme Court justices were women (33%), 33% of Circuit Court of Appeals judges and 24% of federal court judges. Women held 27% of all state judge positions.
During the 2012–2013 academic year, women made up 47% of Juris Doctor (JD) students, people of color made up 25.8% of JD students. In 2009, in the U.S, women made up 20.6% of law school deans. In the U.S. in 2014, 32.9% of all lawyers were women. 44.8% of law firm associates were women in 2013. In the 50 "best law firms for women" in the U.S., "19% of the equity partners were women, 29% of the non-equity partners were women, and 42% of... counsels were women.
A survey indicates that 96% of U.S. law firms state that their highest paid partner is male. "Only 24.1% of all federal judgeships were held by women, and only 27.5% of state judgeships were held by women." Women lawyers' salaries were "83% of men lawyers' salaries in 2014".
In the U.S., while women made up 34% of the legal profession in 2014, women are underrepresented in senior positions in all areas of the profession. There has been an increase in women in the law field from the 1970s to 2010, but the increase has been seen in entry-level jobs. In 2020, 37% of lawyers were female. Women of color are even more underrepresented in the legal profession. In private practice law firms, women make up just 4% of managing partners in the 200 biggest law firms. In 2014 in Fortune 500 corporations, 21% of the general counsels were women, of which only 10.5% were African-American, 5.7% were Hispanic, 1.9% were Asian-American/Pacific Islanders, and 0% were Middle Eastern. In 2009, 21.6% of law school Deans were women. Women held 27.1% of all federal and state judge positions in 2012. In the U.S., "[w]omen of color were more likely than any other group to experience exclusion from other employees, racial and gender stereotyping." There are few women law school deans; the list includes Joan Mahoney, Barbara Aronstein Black at Columbia Law School, Elena Kagan at Harvard Law School, Kathleen Sullivan at Stanford Law School, Kathleen Boonzang at Seton Hall Law, and the Hon. Kristin Booth Glenn and Michelle J. Anderson at the City University of New York School of Law.
In 2023, women became the majority among law firm associates and 28% of all U.S. law firm partners were women, according to the National Association for Law Placement (NALP)."Women in the Legal Profession" American Bar Association. Retrieved January 21, 2025.
Women of color A 2019 survey of diversity at 232 law firms show that women of color and black women specifically continue to be significantly underrepresented, making up 8.57% and 1.73% of all attorneys, respectively. Law firms are overwhelmingly white and male, despite efforts to recruit people of color from prestigious institutions.
Representation NALP found that every year since 2009 there has been a decline of African-American associates—"from 4.66 percent to 3.95 percent." According to a November 2015 NALP press release, at just 2.55 percent of partners, minority women remain the most underrepresented group at partnership level.
Treatment A 2008 survey by the National Association of Women Lawyers (NAWL) found that women of color view their workplace as racially/ethnically stereotypical and exclusionary as a result. Women of color also felt that law firms were not taking enough action to increase diversity, and that when actions were taken, they were not executed effectively. The ABA Commission on Women in the Profession released a report which was a culmination of a study meant to address the decline of women of color in the legal profession. In the study, women of color were given the opportunity to express concern over the negative effects they faced in the workplace and how those effects carried into their personal life. Women of color reported feelings of exclusion, isolation, and as though they were receiving more unwanted critical attention than their counterparts.
The ABA Commission on Women in the Profession when looking at reports on the treatment of women of color in the legal profession were disappointed with the patterns they noticed which led the ABA Commission on Women in the Profession to undertake their own research in 2003, the Women of Color Research Initiative. In both law firms and corporate legal departments the findings were that women of color "receive less compensation than men and white women; are denied equal access to significant assignments, mentoring and sponsorship opportunities; receive fewer promotions; and have the highest rate of attrition." There is a ripple effect within the treatment of women of color. Women of color are put at a disadvantage early on making "the ultimate result that women of color miss opportunities to get better work assignments, more client contact, and more billable hours." Women of color's treatment within the legal profession and their feelings about this treatment have affected the retention of women of color in the legal profession. Women of color leave law firms at a high rate, "nearly 75 percent leave by their fifth year, and nearly 86 percent leave before their seventh year."
Strategy The ABA Commission on Women in the Profession released a report aimed at identifying challenges faced by women of color in law firms and found that "to overcome systemic discrimination against women of color, firms must recognize that the experiences of women of color are different from those of other groups; implementing changes to reflect this difference is necessary for retention. Firms and corporations must initiate active mentorship programs and encourage organization-wide discussions about issues concerning women of color, and constructive feedback is required." After the release of this report, several law firms have attempted the recommendations set forth by the report. Law firms began initiatives that focus on recruiting women of color as well as ensuring the retention of women of color as well. Recruiting of minority women has been increased through law firms finding summer associates by doing interviews "at the Southeast Minority Career Fair, MCCA/Vault Career Fair, Specialty Bar Association, Lavender Law Career Fair, and at schools such as Howard University School of Law and North Carolina Central School of Law."
Canada representation In 2010 in Canada, "there were 22,261 practicing women lawyers and 37,617 practicing men lawyers." Canadian studies show that "50% of lawyers said they felt their firms were doing "poorly" or "very poorly" in their provision of flexible work arrangements." More women lawyers found it "difficult to manage the demands of work and personal/family life" than men, with 75% of women reporting these challenges versus 66% of men associates. A 2010 report about Ontario lawyers from 1971 to 2006 indicates that "...racialized women accounted for 16% of all lawyers under 30, compared to 5% of lawyers 30 and older in 2006. Visible minority lawyers accounted for 11.5% of all lawyers in 2006. Aboriginal lawyers accounted for 1.0% of all lawyers in 2006.