Philippine mythology is rooted in the many indigenous Philippine folk religions. Philippine mythology exhibits influence from Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist, and Christian traditions.
Philippine mythology includes concepts akin to those in other belief systems, such as the notions of heaven (kaluwalhatian, kalangitan, kamurawayan), hell (kasamaan, sulad), and the human soul (kaluluwa, kaulolan, makatu, ginoand kud,...).
The primary use of Philippine mythology is to explain the nature of the world, human existence, and life's mysteries. Myths include narratives of heroes, deities (anito, Diwata), and mythological creatures. These myths were transmitted through oral tradition, handed down through generations guided by spiritual leaders or shamans, (babaylan, katalonan, mumbaki, baglan, machanitu, walian, mangubat, bahasa,...), and community elders.
Sources
The two significant sources of Philippine mythologies are oral and written literature.
Oral literature Oral literature (also known as folk literature) consists of stories that passed down the generations by speech or song. All Philippine mythologies originated as oral literature. Stories naturally change and proliferate. Despite many recording projects, the majority have yet to be properly documented. These traditions were intentionally influenced with by the Spanish through the 16th century influence of Christian mythology. Examples include the Biag ni Lam-ang and the Tale of Bernardo Carpio, where certain characters were imposed with Spanish names and influence. Interest in oral literature grew in the 21st century due to interest among the youth, alongside with literary works, television, radio, and social media.
Written literature Spanish chroniclers have claimed that the indigenous population of the Philippines did not have written religious literature. However, scholars agree that statements of denial likely reflected a desire by the colonizers to deny the existence of what they did not approve. For example, the Spanish chronicler Chirino stated that the natives had no religious writings, but on the same account narrated that a native possessed an indigenous poetic book. The book was utilized by the natives to express a "deliberate pact" with what the Spanish called with prejudice as "the devil", which contextually was an indigenous god and not a demon. The book was burned on order of the Spanish. The scholar Beyer also noted of the time when a Spanish priest boasted about burning indigenous religious writings, specifically "more than three hundred scrolls written in the native character". Even Chinese sources maintain the existence of indigenous religious texts from the Philippines. In 1349, the Chinese Wang Ta-yuan recorded that widows of important leaders spent the rest of their lives poring over religious texts. Spanish sources note that native writings were written on native reeds and leaves using iron points and other local pens, similar to how things are written on a papyrus, and formed into scrolls or books. Some were also written on bamboos.
Juan de Plasencia wrote the Relacion de las Costumbres de Los Tagalos in 1589, documenting the traditions of the Tagalog people. Miguel de Loarca wrote Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas and Pedro Chirino added Relacion de las Yslas Filipinas (1604). Anitism books have been published by universities throughout the country, such as Mindanao State University, University of San Carlos, University of the Philippines, Ateneo Universities, Silliman University, and University of the Cordilleras, as well as other publishers such as Anvil Publishing. The publications spanned the 16th to the 21st centuries. Printed but unpublished sources include college and graduate school theses. Written literature does not provide definitive accounts of particular stories, which vary from town to town, even within the same ethnic group. Examples include Bakunawa and the Seven Moons and The Tambanokano, whose specifics depend on the locality, ethnicity, story origin, and cultural progression.
History
The indigenous religions of the Philippines developed through a variety of migrations and trade routes. Scholars theorized that Austronesians arrived through the "Out-of-Taiwan model", crossing from mainland Asia to Taiwan, and later the Philippines, continuing to other islands. The Austronesians are believed to have brought animist beliefs incorporating shamanism, ancestor worship, totemism, and tattoos. Beliefs in benevolent and malevolent spirits was established by their arrival.Blust, R. (1995). The Prehistory of the Austronesian-Speaking Peoples: A View from Language. Journal of World Prehistory.
By 200 to 300 CE, Hindu mythologies arrived in the Philippines through trade routes and migration. Hinduism brought Indianized traditions to the Philippines, including indigenous epics such as Ibalong, Siday, and Hinilawod, folk stories, and superstitions that blended with indigenous polytheisims. The concept of good and bad demons, prevalent in Indian societies, became widespread in the archipelago. These demons were regarded as both evil and good. Indigenous religions were not replaced by Hinduism, rather, the former absorbed traditions and beliefs from it. Gender-variant deities and shamans became widespread. Humanoid mythical creatures emerged alongside a variety of belief systems.H. Otley Beyer, H. O. (1947). Outline Review of Philippine Archaeology by Islands and Provinces. Philippine Journal of Science. Around 900 CE, Chinese influence spread in some areas, adding Sinified and Buddhist belief systems. The most prominent was belief in ghosts.Dy, A. C. (2015). Chinese Buddhism in Catholic Philippines: Syncretism as Identity. Anvil Publishing, Inc.
By 1300 CE, Muslim traders arrived in the southern Philippines, bringing with them Islamic myth and belief systems. Many in the southern and western Philippines converted to Islam.Tan, S. K. (1995). Islam in the Philippines. University of the Philippines. In the middle of the 16th century, the Spanish arrived from Latin America and brought with them Ibero-American Christian myth (for example, veneration to Our Lady of Guadalupe). Some inhabitants were receptive to these myths, but most were not as the Spanish wanted to conquer the islands, instead of just injecting traditions. The Spanish began a three-century purge against indigenous religions, suppressing and mocking indigenous cultures. Monotheism generally replaced indigenous polytheistic beliefs. Traditional myths and folklore were gradually reshaped and adapted to fit the changing beliefs and influences of the time. However, indigenous belief systems survived–despite Spanish threats and killings.Limos, M A. (2019). The Fall of the Babaylan. Esquire.Brewer, C. (2004). Shamanism, Catholicism, and Gender Relations in Colonial Philippines, 1521–1685. Ashgate. The Philippine revolution was accompanied by attempts to revitalize the indigenous Philippine folk religions and establish them as the state religion. However, the proposals were sidelined over conflicts with the Americans, which led to war.Kenno, L. W. V. (1901). The Katipunan of the Philippines. The North American Review. In the late 19th century, the US occupied the country leading more people to convert to Christianity.Reuter, F. T. (2014). Catholic Influence on American Colonial Policies, 1898–1904.
Regional mythology Filipino mythologies from different ethnic groups have similarities such as: The Bicolano people and the Visayan myths use different names for their deities, but the activities in their creation myths are similar; Deities named Mayari/Malayari/Apûng Malyari, are prevalent in Tagalog, Kapampangan, and Sambal mythologies; The moon deity Bulan and serpent deity Bakunawa appear in Hiligaynon, Karay-a, Cebuano and Bicolano mythologies; Moon-swallowing monsters named Tambanokano in Mandaya and Manobo mythologies. The Mandaya Tambanokano is portrayed as a crab, while the Manobo Tambanokano is depicted as a tarantula or scorpion; Foe-deities named Gugurang and Asuang appear in Bicolano mythology and in Hiligaynon mythology named Agurang and Aswang; and A deity named Kabunian appears in the mythologies of the Ibaloi people, the Bontoc people, and the Ifugao people.
The deities, heroes, and creatures are different from each other, and do not form a unified narrative. Each story has multiple versions. In many cases, stories vary from place to place even within a single ethnic group.
The 7,000 Philippines islands divide into three main regions: Luzon, Visayas, and Mindanao (which is subdivided into North and South). The difference in mythologies and belief systems is by ethnic group instead than geography. Some ethnic groups have influence in only a few towns, while others span provinces. Buddhism and Hinduism in the Philippines is influential.
Luzon Pre-colonial Luzon was split among Hindu-Buddhist, Muslim, and animist worshippers. Creation Story – Story of Bathala (Tagalog) the story explains how Bathala became the ruler of the universe, the etiological explanation of the coconut tree, and how everything on Earth came to be The Creation – Lumawig (Igorot) Lumawig is a spirit god who created people in different areas and explains why people speak different languages. The Flood Story – Lumawig (Igorot) Lumawig's two sons flood the Earth to bring up mountains so that they can catch pig and deer. However, this drowned all the people on Earth except for a brother and sister. Lumawig helped the two survive and after it subsided, the brother and sister married and repopulated the Earth. (Etiological explanation for mountains)
Visayas Pre-colonial Visayas were influenced by Hindu-Buddhist and Animism. The Spaniards described some of the people who lived there as pintados, The Sun And the Moon– the Sun and Moon created the stars. The Sun burned the stars and this upset the Moon. They begin to fight, but the Moon ran away, chased by the Sun
Mindanao Pre-colonial Mindanao (around 900AD) was influenced by Hindu-Buddhist, Indonesian, and Malaysian beliefs and culture. By the 14th century, Islam was well established in most northern islands of Mindanao.
The Children of the Limokon (Mandaya) – The limokon bird laid eggs along a river that created man and woman. However, they were born on opposite sides of the river. One day the man saw the woman and they married and had children. The Sun and the Moon (Mandaya) – The Sun and Moon were married, but one day, the Sun got angry at the Moon and started to chase her. The Sun became angry at his first child, minced him and scattered him across the sky to form the stars. Another son was a gigantic crab who created lightning when he blinked. He lives in a hole in the bottom of the ocean and is responsible for the tides. How the Moon and the Stars Came to Be (Bukidnon) – At one time the sky was close to the ground. A spinster who was pounding rice struck the sky so hard it began to rise. Her comb and beads that she hung on the sky to dry rose with it and became the Moon and stars. The Flood Story (Bukidnon) – A big crab that crawled into the sea created the flood that drowned everyone except those who made a raft and survived upon it. Origin (Bagobo) – A boy and a girl were the only ones left on Mount Apo. They were weak because of a drought. However, the boy found a sugarcane that fed them until rain came. This is why they are called Bagobo. Epic ‘Tudbulul’ (T’Boli) – Tudbulu was a hero who organized a concert. He gathered music, attracting many people. Some of these people stayed and formed the T’boli people. Creation Story – D’wata (T’boli) – The Betoti found soil and brought it to D’wata. They spread out the soil and created land. The animals told Betoti that they needed someone to look after them. Betoti told D’wata. Man and woman were created out of statues.