Conservatism in the United States is different from other forms of conservatism throughout the Western world. In the United States, the two major national political parties, Republicans and Democrats, have both historically supported republicanism and the classical liberal ideals on which the country was founded during the American Revolution and Revolutionary War, including liberty, the pursuit of happiness, rule of law, consent of the governed, fear of corruption, and equal rights before the law. Political divisions inside the United States have historically been seen as comparatively minor compared to those in Europe, where the divide between the Left and the Right led to violent political polarization, starting with the French Revolution.Arthur Aughey, Greta Jones, W. T. M. Riches, The Conservative Political Tradition in Britain and the United States (1992), p. 1: "there are those who advance the thesis that American exceptionalism means...there can be no American conservatism precisely because the American Revolution created a universally liberal society."
While European conservatism historically has been supportive or associated with monarchy, an established church, or a hereditary aristocracy, these ideals have never been supported by American conservatives, who historically have opposed utopian ideas of progress.Iain McLean and Alistair McMillan, Concise Oxford Dictionary of Politics, p. 114, "Conservative ideas are, thus, more genuine and profound than many critics suggest, but such unity as they have is purely negative, definable only by its opposition and rejection of abstract, universal, and ideal principles..." As Patrick Allitt, a historian at Emory University, wrote in 2009, the primary difference between conservatives and liberals in the U.S. is not one of policy but of attitude.
Unlike Canada and the United Kingdom, where national political parties carry the name "Conservative Party", no major U.S. political party is similarly named.Michael Kazin et al. eds. The Concise Princeton Encyclopedia of American Political History (2011) pp 117-28. The Conservative Party of Virginia, founded in 1867, elected members to the U.S. House of Representatives from Maryland and North Carolina. Since 1962, there has been a small Conservative Party of New York State. Following the American Civil War in the late 1860s, the former Whigs formed a Conservative Party in several Southern states, but they soon merged into state based Democratic parties.
Colonial era
During the colonial era of the United States from the 15th century through the American Revolution in the 18th century, Americans rarely referred to themselves as political conservatives. However, many used conservative as an adjective, as in, "I take a conservative view of this issue". Nevertheless, historians have noted the existence of a conservative tradition throughout the history of the United States. Clinton Rossiter, a Cornell University historian and political scientist, wrote in 1962 that, "there is a certain unity, if not always a conscious continuity, in the loose succession of groups and movements that have been styled 'conservative'".
Rossiter identifies three colonial era conservative movements. The first was the Puritan oligarchy, which led early Massachusetts and Connecticut and included such men as John Winthrop, John Davenport, John Cotton, Nathaniel Ward, John Eliot, William Stoughton, Samuel Willard, and the Mather family. Their political philosophy held:
man's depravity natural inequality of all men and inevitable existence of social classes the state should be led by an ethical aristocracy chosen by and from men with an economic and religious stake in society the union of church and state and the government's ability to regulate people's lives for the good order of the community and the salvation of souls an emphasis on liberty "to that only which is good, just, and honest"
The second movement was conservative Whiggism. Examples of conservative Whigs include Cadwallader Colden, the De Lancey family of New York, and Richard Bland. Whig ideas dominated colonial politics, and Whig philosophers, such as John Locke (1632–1704) and other apologists of the Glorious Revolution of 1688, were widely read. Conservative Whigs emphasized:
government by gentry a harmonious order of social ranks and classes educational institutions that teach respect for tradition religious institutions that preach obedience and virtue substantial property qualifications for suffrage and office-holding the balancing of liberty with the duty to obey legitimate authority devotion to the British constitution
The third movement was the Loyalists or Tories of the American Revolution, most of whom were conservative Whigs unwilling to take up arms against the British monarch and King George III during the American Revolutionary War.
Leonard Woods Labaree, a historian at Yale University, writes that the American gentry and the merchant class were generally conservative. According to Labaree, "It was to the interest of both groups to oppose the growing spirit of liberalism, whether it came from frontier farmers or from the unenfranchised artisans of the towns." The gentry and merchant classes dominated colonial government and believed owning property should be a prerequisite for voting. In the colonial debates over paper currency, merchants opposed printing money because it led to depreciation and inflation. Ronald L. Heinemann notes that members of Virginia's planter class held to a traditional social hierarchy:
Robert Muccigrosso, a history professor at Hampden–Sydney College, identifies three aspects of colonial conservatism: the churches, the education system, and admiration for the British constitution. Support for established churches, including the Church of England in Southern Colonies and the Congregational churches in the New England Colonies, was a largely conservative impulse in the original Thirteen Colonies. Most colonial ministers believed in a social hierarchy, and they opposed anti-intellectual movements, which they perceived as threatening to order and stability. Nine colonial colleges were founded to teach upper-class gentlemen and future ministers traditional knowledge. Conservatives admired Great Britain's balanced government with power divided between the monarchy, House of Lords (aristocracy), and House of Commons. They believed this system successfully preserved an ordered society and promoted individual liberty.
Founding
American Revolution
After the French and Indian War (1754–1763), the British government asserted greater control over colonial affairs as it ended its policy of salutary neglect. This interference threatened the power and economic security of the colonial ruling class. Resistance to British policies, specifically taxation without representation, culminated in the American Revolution (1765–1783).
Supporters of the Revolution were known as Whigs or Patriots and were divided between conservatives and radicals. For conservative Patriots, the Revolution was about maintaining the status quo and their rights as Englishmen. Conservatives such as John Dickinson and James Duane attempted to lead the Revolution in a moderate direction that avoided the dangers of mob rule. Thomas Jefferson, Samuel Adams, and Patrick Henry led the radicals. These men used the Revolution to demand greater equality within society.
Opponents of the Revolution were called Loyalists or Tories. Labaree identified eight characteristics of Loyalists that contributed to their conservative opposition to independence. Loyalists:
Resisted innovation Held the conviction that resistance to the British government was morally wrong Felt alienated from the Patriot cause when it resorted to violence, such as burning houses and tarring and feathering royal officials Desired to take a middle-of-the-road position and were angry when forced by the Patriots to declare their opposition Had a sentimental attachment to Britain, admiration for the British constitution, and belief in the value of the British connection Were procrastinators who realized that while independence might be inevitable, they would rather postpone it for as long as possible Were cautious and lacked the Patriots' confidence in the future of an independent America Were pessimists who feared that independence would lead to mob rule, anarchy, or tyranny
During the Revolution, hundreds of thousands of Loyalists fled the American colonies. Among them were important figures such as the statesman Joseph Galloway and the minister Jonathan Boucher. Other Loyalists stayed. Samuel Seabury, for example, abandoned politics but became the first bishop of the Episcopal Church. This church appealed to families that still admired hierarchy, tradition, and historic liturgy but had given up their allegiance to the king.
In the 20th century, American conservatives have highlighted the conservative nature of the American Revolution. Russell Kirk considered the Revolution "a conservative reaction, in the English political tradition, against royal innovation". Robert Nisbet stressed the conservative nature of the American Revolution in contrast to the extreme passions and much greater violence of other revolutions, especially the French Revolution. He attributed the Patriots' restraint to the localization of power, religiosity, the absence of anticlericalism, and the relatively open class system made possible by the absence of hereditary aristocrats.
After 1776, the new American conservatism, unlike European conservatism, was not based on inherited rank, landed estates, or loyalty to the Crown or the established Church. Conservative philosopher Frank Meyer points out its resemblance to European liberalism.
David Lefer has emphasized the central role of conservative Founding Fathers in shaping key documents such as the United States Constitution.David Lefer, The Founding Conservatives: How a Group of Unsung Heroes Saved the American Revolution (2013) The Framers of the Constitution were innovative insofar as they were creating a new government and conservative in that they were informed by the "wisdom of the ages and... the experience of generations". The conservative thought of James Madison and Alexander Hamilton can be seen in The Federalist Papers, a set of essays supporting the Constitution during the debate over its ratification. Both men believed that human nature was imperfect. Federalist No. 51 states:
While Madison believed in popular sovereignty, he wanted to prevent the tyranny of the majority. Popular passions needed to be channeled and refined through representatives. The indirect election of U.S. senators complements the direct election of the House of Representatives. The Senate's composition reassured the wealthy minority that the majority would not dispossess them. The Constitution provided an impartial, unelected judicial branch to check popular passions further. Each branch of government would be motivated by self-interest to resist encroachments from the other branches. The separation of powers would further protect against tyranny.
Federalists