are a broad range of Japanese percussion instruments. In Japanese, the term refers to any kind of drum, but outside Japan, it is used specifically to refer to any of the various Japanese drums called and to the form of ensemble drumming more specifically called . The process of constructing varies between manufacturers, and the preparation of both the drum body and skin can take several years depending on the method.
have a mythological origin in Japanese folklore, but historical records suggest that were introduced to Japan through Chinese and Korean cultural influence as early as the 6th century CE; pottery from Haniwa figures depicting drums has also been found. Some are similar to instruments originating from India. Archaeological evidence also supports the view that were present in Japan during the 6th century in the Kofun period. Their function has varied throughout history, ranging from communication, military action, theatrical accompaniment, religious ceremonies and concert performances. In modern times, have also played a central role in social movements for minorities both within and outside Japan.
performance, characterized by an ensemble playing on different drums, was developed in 1951 through the work of Daihachi Oguchi and later in 1961 by the Ondekoza, and was made later popular with many other groups copying the format of Ondekoza such as Kodo, Yamato, Tao, Fuun No Kai, Sukeroku Taiko, etc. Other performance styles, such as , have also emerged from specific communities in Japan. performance groups are active not only in Japan, but also in the United States, Australia, Canada, Europe, Taiwan, and Brazil. Taiko performance consists of many components in technical rhythm, form, stick grip, clothing, and the particular instrumentation. Ensembles typically use different types of barrel-shaped as well as smaller . Many groups accompany the drums with vocals, strings, and woodwind instruments.
History
Origin
The origin of the and its variants is unclear, though there have been many suggestions. Historical accounts, of which the earliest date from 588 CE, note that young Japanese men traveled to Korea to study the , a drum that originated in South China. This study and appropriation of Chinese instruments may have influenced the emergence of . Certain court music styles, especially and , arrived in Japan through both China and Korea. In both traditions, dancers were accompanied by several instruments that included drums similar to . Certain percussive patterns and terminology in , an early dance and music style in Japan, in addition to physical features of the , also reflect influence from both China and India on drum use in performance.
Archaeological evidence shows that were used in Japan as early as the 6th century CE, during the latter part of the Kofun period, and were likely used for communication, in festivals, and in other rituals. This evidence was substantiated by the discovery of haniwa statues in the Sawa District of Gunma Prefecture. Two of these figures are depicted playing drums; one of them, wearing skins, is equipped with a barrel-shaped drum hung from his shoulder and uses a stick to play the drum at hip height. This statue is titled "Man Beating the " and is considered the oldest evidence of performance in Japan. Similarities between the playing style demonstrated by this and known music traditions in China and Korea further suggest influences from these regions.
The , the second-oldest book of Japanese classical history, contains a mythological story describing the origin of . The myth tells how Amaterasu, who had sealed herself inside a cave in anger, was beckoned out by an elder goddess Ame-no-Uzume when others had failed. Ame-no-Uzume accomplished this by emptying out a barrel of sake and dancing furiously on top of it. Historians regard her performance as the mythological creation of music.
Use in warfare
In feudal Japan, were often used to motivate troops, call out orders or announcements, and set a marching pace; marches were usually set to six paces per beat of the drum. During the 16th-century Warring States period, specific drum calls were used to communicate orders for retreating and advancing. Other rhythms and techniques were detailed in period texts. According to the war chronicle , nine sets of five beats would summon an ally to battle, while nine sets of three beats, sped up three or four times, was the call to advance and pursue an enemy. Folklore from the 16th century on the legendary 6th-century Emperor Keitai offers a story that he obtained a large drum from China, which he named . The Emperor was thought to have used it to both encourage his own army and intimidate his enemies.
In traditional settings
have been incorporated in Japanese theatre for rhythmic needs, general atmosphere, and in certain settings decoration. In the kabuki play The Tale of Shiroishi and the Taihei Chronicles, scenes in the pleasure quarters are accompanied by to create dramatic tension. Noh theatre also features music, where performance consists of highly specific rhythmic patterns. The school of drumming, for example, contains 65 basic patterns in addition to 25 special patterns; these patterns are categorized in several classes. Differences between these patterns include changes in tempo, accent, dynamics, pitch, and function in the theatrical performance. Patterns are also often connected together in progressions.
continue to be used in , a classical music tradition typically performed at the Tokyo Imperial Palace in addition to local temples and shrines. In , one component of the art form is traditional dance, which is guided in part by the rhythm set by the .
have played an important role in many local festivals across Japan. They are also used to accompany religious ritual music. In , a category of music and dances stemming from Shinto practices, frequently appear alongside other performers during local festivals. In Buddhist traditions, are used for ritual dances as part of the Bon Festival. , along with other instruments, are featured atop towers that are adorned with red-and-white cloth and serve to provide rhythms for the dancers who are encircled around the performers.
In addition to the instruments, the term also refers to the performance itself, and commonly to one style called , or ensemble-style playing (as opposed to festival performances, rituals, or theatrical use of the drums). was developed by Daihachi Oguchi in 1951. He is considered a master performer and helped transform performance from its roots in traditional settings in festivals and shrines. Oguchi was trained as a jazz musician in Nagano, and at one point, a relative gave him an old piece of written music. Unable to read the traditional and esoteric notation, Oguchi found help to transcribe the piece, and on his own added rhythms and transformed the work to accommodate multiple taiko players on different-sized instruments. Each instrument served a specific purpose that established present-day conventions in performance.
Oguchi's ensemble, Osuwa Daiko, incorporated these alterations and other drums into their performances. They also devised novel pieces that were intended for non-religious performances. Several other groups emerged in Japan through the 1950s and 1960s. Oedo Sukeroku Daiko was formed in Tokyo in 1959 under Seidō Kobayashi, and has been referred to as the first group who toured professionally. Globally, performance became more visible during the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, when it was featured during the Festival of Arts event.
was also developed through the leadership of , who gathered young men who were willing to devote their entire lifestyle to playing and took them to Sado Island for training where Den and his family had settled in 1968. Den chose the island based on a desire to reinvigorate the folk arts in Japan, particularly ; he became inspired by a drumming tradition unique to Sado called that required considerable strength to play well. Den called the group "Za Ondekoza" or Ondekoza for short, and implemented a rigorous set of exercises for its members including long-distance running. In 1975, Ondekoza was the first group to tour in the United States. Their first performance occurred just after the group finished running the Boston Marathon while wearing their traditional uniforms. In 1981, some members of Ondekoza split from Den and formed another group called Kodo under the leadership of Eitetsu Hayashi. Kodo continued to use Sado Island for rigorous training and communal living, and went on to popularize through frequent touring and collaborations with other musical performers. Kodo is one of the most recognized groups both in Japan and worldwide.
Estimates of the number of groups in Japan vary to up to 5,000 active groups in Japan, but more conservative assessments place the number closer to 800 based on membership in the Nippon Taiko Foundation, the largest national organization of groups. Some pieces that have emerged from early groups that continue to be performed include Yatai-bayashi from Ondekoza, from Osuwa Daiko, and from Kodo.
Categorization + Taiko by construction method Others
Taiko have been developed into a broad range of percussion instruments that are used in both Japanese folk and classical musical traditions. An early classification system based on shape and tension was advanced by Francis Taylor Piggott in 1909. Taiko are generally classified based on the construction process, or the specific context in which the drum is used, but some are not classified, such as the toy den-den daiko.
With few exceptions, taiko have a drum shell with heads on both sides of the body, and a sealed resonating cavity. The head may be fastened to the shell using a number of different systems, such as using ropes. Taiko may be either tunable or non-tunable depending on the system used.
Taiko are categorized into three types based on construction process. Byō-uchi-daiko are constructed with the drumhead nailed to the body. Shime-daiko are classically constructed with the skin placed over iron or steel rings, which are then tightened with ropes. Contemporary shime-daiko are tensioned using bolts or turnbuckles systems attached to the drum body. Tsuzumi are also rope-tensioned drums, but have a distinct hourglass shape and their skins are made using deerskin.
Byō-uchi-daiko were historically made only using a single piece of wood; they continue to be made in this manner, but are also constructed from staves of wood. Larger drums can be made using a single piece of wood, but at a much greater cost due to the difficulty in finding appropriate trees. The preferred wood is the Japanese zelkova or keyaki, but a number of other woods, and even wine barrels, have been used to create taiko. Byō-uchi-daiko cannot be tuned.
The typical byō-uchi-daiko is the nagadō-daiko, an elongated drum that is roughly shaped like a wine barrel. Nagadō-daiko are available in a variety of sizes, and their head diameter is traditionally measured in shaku (units of roughly 30 cm). Head diameters range from . are the smallest of these drums and are usually about in diameter. The is a medium-sized nagadō-daiko ranging from , and weighing about . vary in size, and are often as large as in diameter. Some ō-daiko are difficult to move due to their size, and therefore permanently remain inside the performance space, such as temple or shrine. Ō-daiko means "large drum" and for a given ensemble, the term refers to their largest drum. The other type of byō-uchi-daiko is called a and can be any drum constructed such that the head diameter is greater than the length of the body.